Environmental Issues

Article Palmer, James and Robin Hoffman. 2000. Rating reliability and representation validity in scenic landscape assessments. Suny College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Landscape and Urban Planning 54, 149-161.

Problem Statement
The validity of an expert testimony must be substantiated by scientific findings. The problem however, is the nature of aesthetic judgment itself. What separates the layman from the professional (in the field of landscape assessments) is never clear from the standpoint of legal procedures.

Significance of the Problem
Visual landscape assessments must be accompanied by tests of reliability and validity. Validity and reliability determines the overall efficacy of a finding when presented in court. The US Supreme Court determined that an assessment can only be admitted as testimony if 1) it can be tested, 2) subjected to peer review and published, 3) ability to control parameters, and 4) acceptance by the relevant scientific community.

Literature
Unit of analysis is generally microscopic, in the sense that current literature on this topic is essentially differential.  Different authors have different views of methods, methodology, mode of analysis, etc.

Method
Calculating reliability coefficients can be achieved by clear reference to statistical procedures. Some of the methods used are ANOVA, matrix determination, and group mean measurements (for validity). A Likert scale is used to assess the actual response of the samples (it was not mentioned the number of samples).

Implications
The implications are quite clear. One can clearly see the standardization of visual assessment in terms of methodology. Another is the systematization of the process of admitting findings in a court of law.

Critique
Barriers to reliability and validity may also be internal. Measuring across-group differences are not enough to resolve the issues involved. The researchers may need to develop a more holistic approach in dealing with such problems.

A) Statement of the Problem There are many factors that can readily affect house prices. These can be the economic, social and environmental factors. Environmental factors can be varied too. Which among them could make significant impact in the process of decision making and in up to what extent

B)  Significance Of The Problem-The study focused on how significance or impact ecological motivations such as presence of water, green areas, open spaces,  gardens, woods and parks can be in making decisions regarding house prices and premiums in different areas like that of the Netherlands.

C)  Literature Review -The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house price in the Netherlands was an Elsevier Landscape and Urban Planning article by Joke Luttik, a researcher on Landscape and Spatial Planning in Netherlands.

D) The Approach or Methods Employed- The research method that has been employed is the hedonic pricing method or HPM which is a statistical analysis used to estimate the effect of environmental attributes on transaction prices.

E) The Basic Findings-The basic findings of the study demonstrates the significance of particular environmental factors to house premiums plus other more important factors to consider like the attractive landscape, presence of water, and accessibility to other amenities.

F) Implications-The implication of these findings is the evidence that environmental factors play to housing location and its effect to potential buyers or developers.

G) Critique in Terms of the Threats to Validity of the Study-Comparison of the results of the study showed that there seemed to be little reason to assume that only environmental aspect or presence of green areas can make a different premium in a certain locality. There are other more factors involved like the total attractiveness, accessibility, social-economic status and the absence of traffic noises among other important factors.

(A book review)

A Case Study Method in Landscape Architecture

statement of the problem
a. Bryant Park, which is supposed to be the place for leisure and relaxation, served as the meeting place of the buyers and dealers of illegal drugs.

significance of the problem
a.  The problem causes the place to have a negative impact to most of the people.

b. The young people of the place are directly affected.

approach or methods employed 
a. Multi-method approach (combination of historical and  story-telling or anecdotal documentation)

the basic findings 
a. It was found out that the intensive illegal activity has something to do with the semi-seclusion lay out of the park which becomes strategic for the drug dealers to do their business with the drug user.

Implications and Solutions
a. Landscape architect Laurie Olin and his firm Hanna or Olin suggested redevelopment and redesign on the park to improve its physical problems such as the numerous dad ends, lack of amenities and many hidden places so that the problem on illegal drug transaction will be eliminated (Francis 2001).

b. Some of the numerous recommendations that will solve the problem of the said park include the removal of the iron fences and shrubbery, cutting of openings in the balustrades for easier pedestrian circulation, provision of a third set of steps midway between the existing stairs and 42nd street and ramps for the handicapped,  improvement of visual access up the steps on the venue of the Americas, restoration of the fountain and other restroom structures (Whyte 1998 as ctd in Francis 2001).

critique in terms of the threats to validity of the study
a. One of the problems was the maintenance of the park since it was made open for the public. It was good that amenities had been placed for the convenience of the people and for the encouragement to do relaxation and recreation instead of illegal activities. But the maintenance for the said amenities is not that easy. The problem again is to where the fund will come in order to maintain the cleanliness and orderliness of the park.

Green power is basically the energy produced through the exploitation of natural resources that are abundant in the environment, are easily renewable, and do not contribute to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In recent years, wind power has become one of the most common forms of green power seeing that a growing number of countries are investing a considerable amount of resources in constructing wind farms. Many multi-turbine wind farms as well as utility-connected wind turbines nowadays are being used to generate renewable, clean energy to power businesses and homes. European nations and other countries like China believe that wind power generation, as compared to other renewable energy sources, does not cause water, soil, and air pollution. Accordingly, these countries view wind power as a complete opposite of the traditional fossil fuel power plants, and consider wind power as an essential aspect of their ongoing energy policy. However, is wind power as green as many people and countries claim Taken as a whole, wind power is without a doubt a green power, or a clean and renewable energy, which is very much contrary to the traditional fossil fuels that produce enormous amounts of hard-to-manage wastes.

Wind Power
Wind power is essentially a power that is derived from wind, and is found to be a good alternative source of energy. When air moves, wind is consequently produced, and with the appropriate technology, the kinetic energy of the wind can be captured and then modified to other forms of energy, including mechanical and electrical powers. The different types of wind generators that are used to collect wind power include sails, wind turbines, and windmills. In view of this, the wind power is therefore considered as one of the most ancient forms of energy generation utilized by humans as sails that allow winds to push vessels and windmills that spin millstones have been used by humans for thousands of years already. In modern years, wind power is gaining worldwide acceptance as a large scale energy source. In fact, as of 2008, approximately one percent of the entire energy used worldwide was generated from wind power, with the industry continually growing rapidly (Smith, 2010).

Wind Power as Green Power
Wind energy can be exploited in certain areas where favorable conditions are present. When effectively utilized, the electricity generated from wind turbines, like any other source of energy, can sufficiently power schools, houses, appliances, and even an entire community depending on the capacity and size of the turbines. However, compared to the traditional energy sources, the environmental impacts of wind power are somewhat insignificant. Unlike fossil fuel power sources, energy derived from wind power emits no air pollution and consumes no limited fuels. Accordingly, the operation of wind farms does not produce particulates, mercury, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, or any other forms of air pollutants as fossil fuel power sources do. Because of the clean and renewable energy generated by wind power, millions of people view the wind power as a better means to generate electricity than nuclear, coal, gas, or even hydro powers. Moreover, wind power is viewed as a green power since it can significantly reduce the environmental damages caused by power generation all over the world, and its environmental consequences are very modest when measured up to what is achieved (Galbraith, 2009).

Proponents of Wind Power
Wind power, unlike fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases that continually discharge greenhouse gases in the environment, is obviously one of the cleanest and safest sources of renewable energy in the planet. Accordingly, proponents of wind power believe that governments around the world need to shift their energy use priorities to renewable and clean energy, particularly to wind energy. The proponents further claim that the potential brought by the recent developments of better energy generation methods and technological enhancements of wind power will eventually make wind energy as the primary source of worldwide mechanical and electricity power in the near future (West, 2010). In fact, recent figures from the American Wind Energy Association reveal that establishment of wind farms are at an intense pace in the United States, particularly in Texas, Iowa, and California, which are the top three states that significantly utilize the potential wind power (Galbraith, 2009).

Texas Case
To bring pollution-free energy from stormy West Texas to urban areas, the government of Texas approved the largest wind-power project in the United States by building new transmission lines amounting to billions of dollars (MSNBC, 2008, p.1). During the past years, the state of Texas has been a strong proponent of wind power, and this new project will further make Texas a leader in providing renewable power to the metropolitan areas that require electricity. According to State Representative Mark Strama, the capacity for wind generation in north and west Texas is so immense that the state could easily become the world leader in renewable and wind energy in the next century, just as the state is the world leader in gas and oil for the past century (MSNBC, 2008, p. 2). In fact, because of the promise of wind power, legendary Texas oilman T. Boone Pickens procured hundreds of wind turbines to cover his 400,000 acres of land located near Pampa, Texas, which he converted to wind farm. The wind farm of Pickens is scheduled to be completed in 2014 and is considered the largest wind farm of the world at a cost amounting to approximately 12 billion (MSNBC, 2008, p. 2).  

Critics of Wind Power
However, many critics of wind power like the Fraser Institute claim that wind power is inefficient, unreliable, as well as expensive, and it confers less than one percent to the diminution of worldwide greenhouse gases (National Wind Watch, 2009). Moreover, in Germany, experts have found that carbon dioxide emissions have not been reduced by even a single gram, even though the country is operating numerous wind turbines. Distressingly, during the past years, Germany was forced to build additional gas-fired and coal plants to facilitate the countrys power generation needs. Critics further explained that on average, the wind turbines only generate less than 25 percent of power at a time, which usually leads to brownouts in the facilitated areas because of the unstable voltage (National Wind Watch, 2009). Under this scenario, wind power becomes more of an annoyance than a source of electricity.

Denmarks Case
Denmark is the most wind-extensive country all over the world with over 6,000 turbines that contribute roughly to 19 percent of the countrys electricity (National Wind Watch, 2009). Nevertheless, despite the numerous turbines, critics claim (1) that not a single fossil fuel power plant has been closed in the country (2) that an additional 50 percent coal-generated electricity is continually being used to facilitate winds failings (3) that in 2006 alone, carbon dioxide emissions and pollution increased to 36 percent and (4) that electricity costs in Denmark are the most expensive among the European countries (National Wind Watch, 2009). Because of the aforesaid findings, critics as well as residents of Denmark believe that the countrys windmills economically make no sense, and do not instigate the reduction of fossil fuel use.

Impacts of Wind Power 
Many countries have embraced wind power policies as part of their advocacies to use and promote clean energy. One of the problems, however, to the ever-increasing global exploitation of wind power is that wind farms are being positioned along the coastlines or on large tracts of land that lock in the best wind movement. Unfortunately, devoting these areas to wind farms in many cases have sacrificed other government priorities, including urban, wildlife sanctuary, and agricultural developments. Therefore, although wind power has several environmental advantages, it is not entirely environmentally friendly. In addition, wind farms not only take up valuable land, but building the turbines also necessitates considerable resources, particularly in building the infrastructures needed to transport the electricity generated to the intended areas (Smith, 2010). Moreover, many observers believe that wind farms are creating other environmental concerns including visual impacts, avian mortality and noise.

Wyomings Case
Approximately 20 percent of Wyomings area is now declared by the Bureau of Land Management to be off-limits to wind power development (Siegel, 2010). In an attempt to protect the natural habitat of many birds, particularly the Wyomings sage grouse, the Bureau has ordered that all new wind power projects will not anymore be authorized in the core habitats of grouse, which represents roughly 23 percent of the states area. Even though the state is a strong supporter of wind power, they declared that they do not desire to replace the old problems by creating new ones. Accordingly, Wyoming has stepped up its environmental standards by developing wind farms within the areas that do not infringe the protected and threatened habitat of the sage grouse (Siegel, 2010).

Other Measures Being Conducted to Address the Problems 
Bird and bat mortality is a serious and very controversial biological concern not only in Wyoming but for the wind industry all over the world. Conservation and wildlife agencies have raised concerns about the deaths of bats and birds at wind farm sites (Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS, n.d.). In order to address this issue, governments of the affected areas and wind industries have continually sponsored research regarding appropriate study design procedures, mitigation measures, and relevant bat and bird behavior. Moreover, to address the problems, project developers are now being mandated to gather additional information through monitoring efforts at proposed and existing wind energy sites. Hence, careful site selection is now being required by governments and agencies involved in order to minimize avian fatalities and other negative environmental impacts (Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS, n.d.).

On the other hand, like all mechanical systems, wind turbines are expected to create some level of noise during their operation. In order to solve this problem, engineers involved in creating wind turbines have now made significant design changes to minimize the noise from the said turbines (Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS, n.d.). These engineers are now using, among others, insulating materials and proper positioning to reduce noise impacts. Moreover, although wind turbines are positioned in exposed places, it does not necessarily mean that they are visually interfering. Many wind farms nowadays are being placed in multiple locations, with only few turbines in any one location. As a result, the multiple locations strategy has not created any significant negative aesthetic consequences to the landscape (Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS, n.d.).

Analysis of the Issues
Notwithstanding the aforesaid disadvantages, wind energy, as compared to nuclear plants, coal burning plants and other forms of energy generation, is considerably more preferable. Plants and households that use fossil fuels cause pollution to the environment and make use of resources that are not renewable. In contrasts, wind power does not use combustion to produce energy, and more importantly does not produce greenhouse emissions. In addition, wind power does not bring about environmental impairment through resource transportation and extraction, or necessitate considerable amounts of water during operations. In other words, wind power does not generate water or air emissions that can cause hazardous wastes, nor does it exhaust natural resources such as gas, oil, or coal.

As compared to other renewable or green energy, wind power is also apparently more preferable. Hydroelectric power, for instance, involves the construction of dams, which is necessary in order to exploit energy in water, and as a result, the dams can cause more interference to the well-being of waterways and damage to the natural habitats of plants and animals than wind power does. Wind power is without doubt a green power because it can reduce the environmental damage caused by power generation, and it has very little environmental consequences when weighed against to what is achieved.

Wind power plants are to some extent only creating little environmental impacts than fossil fuel and other renewable power plants. Most of the concerns raised on wind farms merely revolve around the visual impacts of wind turbines, noise created by the blades, deaths of bats and birds, as well as economic benefits. Nevertheless, in general, wind power, when compared to other traditional energy sources, has significantly less environmental impact, is utilizing an infinite source of energy, and has more advantages than disadvantages. In fact, because of the promise brought by wind power, many countries today, including the United States, are now integrating wind power policies as part of their advocacies to use and promote clean energy, and are investing a significant amount of resources in creating wind farms. Thus, wind power is the energy source of the future and is without a doubt a green power, or a clean and renewable energy, unlike the traditional fossil fuels which generate enormous amounts of hard-to-manage wastes.

The most receptive countries
The developed countries have shown the most serious attempts to develop capacity to use alternative energy as a source of energy as opposed to fossil fuels. This attempts may however be clouded by the fact that their fossil fuel usage is so large that it may take much more serious reductions before any progress is noticed. Germany leads the way in solar energy consumption and comes second to the United States in wind energy consumption. On the other hand, China with its enormous energy consumption, only manages a seventh rank in wind energy consumption. As much as the developing countries are making attempts to use clean energy, their efforts fall below those of the developed countries. The developing countries can easily argue that they are still trying to lift their populations out of poverty and therefore, if there are countries that should sacrifice for the sake of the environment then it should be the developed countries. On the contrary, developed countries have the capacity to research and develop the alternative sources of fuel.

Drawbacks of solar power
The main drawback to solar power is rigidity. The power has to be accessed at the right location at the right time, failure to which it fails being of benefit. Solar energy is only available when the sun shines and yet most of the power in homesteads is needed most at night, a time when the sun has gone down. That means that to plug the energy demand, one needs an alternative source of power at the time, which may not necessarily be green energy. In addition, the initial costs of installation of solar energy are still high, although these can be easily offset by the low costs of running and maintaining them. Despite these few setbacks, solar energy presents a very viable source of alternative energy if efforts can be made to reduce them. The first step in reducing the setbacks would be further research in to development of storage cells that have more capacity. This would enable the users the opportunity to store more power during the peak hours of production for later use. Another mitigation step would be in governments stepping in and making acquisition of solar equipment more affordable by issuing tax incentives to those interested in using them.

When we are living in this world, it is obvious that we will need the ecosystem of the earth so that we can survive. We will need the earth for food, shelter and practically all the other activities that we may be in need of so that we can be able to live well. A measure of all those demands on the earth is what is referred to as the ecological footprints. There is the capacity that the planet earth can produce and there are the levels of demand that we as human beings have. This comparison is given by the ecological footprints. In other words, the ecological footprints may be said to be a representation of the size of the sea and the land that is biologically productive which is very crucial for the resources regeneration which are consumed by the human population.  (www.nwf.org)

In addition it is also responsible for the absorption of the waste which helps to make the world harmless. It is therefore possible using this means to measure the capacity of the earth. However, there is an assumption that is made that everyone lives a certain level of lifestyle. This value is usually calculated every year but it takes about three years for the values to be fully calculated because of the time it takes the responsible bodies to collect the information and then publish all the gathered statistics. Out of this calculation, it has been clear that he human beings uses the earth resources one and a third times more than the earth can renew them. (spectrum.ieee.org)

The major factors that are used in the ecological footprints are the earth resource that human beings are known to relate with on daily basis. Some of the major factors may be the very crucial resources on the earth such as the sea, the land and the entire environment. Among the factors that are used in the environment are the earths forms of energy such as the coal, oil and so on and the climate. Another factor that is used in this study is the land. This is because it is the one which is responsible for offering human beings food, shelter and all the other activities that human beings may be in need of. Another factor that is crucial in this case is the human population. This is what the study mainly uses so that it can come up with the figures of sustainability.  (www.nwf.org)

Most of the very important resource in the world happen to be non renewable. In addition, those which are renewable take a lot of time before they come back. This means that after some time, we will run out of these resources. There is therefore a need to know the type of resources that we are dealing with. This is the only way that we will be able to know whether the type of resource is renewable or not. Through this study, it is possible to know the rate of usage that human beings have. This way, human being is able to prepare with alternative form of resources in case the current ones are depleted. A good example is oil which recent studies are saying that it is getting depleted. This means that after some time, there will be a problem of fuel. This has resulted to human beings looking for an alternative form of energy which would substitute oil. (Hari Srinivas.)

Some of the advantages of using simple measures such as ecological footprints are that through this measure, human beings are able to know the size and the capacities of the world. This way, they are able to plan for the future and thus they are able to avoid many disasters that may be there if the study was not there. For instance, through the use of ecological footprint, human beings are able predict when the whole world may run out of fossil fuel. This way, they have been able to research and come up with some other forms of energy which will substitute this when it happens.  (Hari Srinivas.)

Through these simple measures, human beings have been able to take some necessary measures to conserve their environment. They have been able to know what causes the major destruction to the environment and therefore take the necessary measures. If this study was not there, it would have been difficult to know this and at the end the environment would be seriously destroyed by some of our activities thereby making the earth unable to support us.  (www.nwf.org)

Some of the other advantages are that there can be a link that can be easily made between the global and the local consumption, it is possible to make a sustainability assessment it is also possible to assess the relationship that exists between different environmental impacts on resources. The reason behind this is that the values that are used in this measure are based on ecological realities instead of basing them on arbitrary weightings. (Hari Srinivas.)

However, there are some disadvantages that are associated with this simple measure. The first one is that there is a lot of aggregation that is done and this is known to sometimes simplify facts. In addition, the assumption and also some proxies that are used in deriving results in a footprint happen not to be apparent all the time. There are also many times when the calculations that are done are hampered by poor philosophical boundary issues coupled with availability of very poor data. This measure is also said to put more emphasis on the resources rather than on the population in an area.  (spectrum.ieee.org)

There are some measures that I will need to employ so that I can reduce my ecological footprint. One of the main reason as to why the measure is very high is for my use of firewood. I will stop making bonfire and I will only make it when it is really necessary. This way, I will have saved the forest which is the source of our water. In addition, I will also reduce on my usage of plastic bags. I usually use plastic bags and dispose the off, I will shift to using a container to carry my stuff. This way, I will have saved on the environment and avoid those bags which happen to be inorganic. I will also make a plan to shift from the current fossil fuels use in the house and the use of electric power to use the solar energy. The reason is that the solar energy is less expensive and at the same time it has no carbon emission which is known to have a major impact on the environment due to global warming. (spectrum.ieee.org)

 The world we live in has limited resources, which we use to satisfy our needs. Due to the exponential increase in population however, coupled with the increase in consumption, the resources are depleting faster than are being replenished.

Sustainability lifestyle is a lifestyle which tries to bring balance to the ecosystem, by reducing the use of resources along with finding ways to replenish them in a better way. This form of lifestyle aims to ensure we not only have enough today, but also saved enough natural resources for tomorrows world.  A sustainable lifestyle can be achieved by altering our diet, transport, and energy usage (Winter, 2007)

Many simple steps can be taken to conserve water. Firstly, we must turn off all unwanted taps, for example while brushing teeth. Washing machines and dishwashers should be used when there is a full load, otherwise we can hand wash dishes. Using public transport decreases carbon emissions, and we can try to use a bicycle whenever feasible. Saving electricity is important as well, and we can try to do that by turning of unwanted lights and switching off sockets when not in use. Another method of sustainability living is to stop smoking.

Forests are being cut down faster than being grown, oil reserves are dwindling and clean drinking water is becoming a rarity for many people below poverty line. It is necessary for us to live life in a sustainable way, to ensure the future of the world. There is a native American proverbWe do not inherit the earth from our ancestors, we borrow it from our children.