Environmental Issues

Abstract
This paper brings into light Sweden s contribution towards greenhouse gas emission.
Swedens stance on the Kyoto Protocol, its success rate, and the constraints it had to overcome are known through this research article. Sweden s environmental initiative as per the EU under the European Trading Scheme (ETS) and across the Baltic Sea is also discussed to bring out its active role in curbing carbon emission. A clear picture of how Sweden s profile changed from altruistic to less philanthropic interests between 1960 and 1980 is shown in this paper. However, Sweden s response to protocols and treaties are positive and the research article will educate that Sweden stands as a role model for other EU countries and for the whole world.

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study
To save the world from greenhouse gas emissions and to give the future generations a safe place for living, every country has to behave responsibly. Natural environment is everyone s concern irrespective of where they live or what they do. People of Sweden understand this in the right perspective and do not wait for law or government to impose anything to prevent the right of common access. However, the right of common access demands that everyone act responsibly and follow certain guidelines. When most countries are unable to meet the targets of Kyoto Protocol, Sweden stands as a role model proving beyond the call of duty to save the world from the worsening effects of global warming.

Sweden is keen on promoting international accords and agreements to protect global environment. Its interest towards global environment is known through Kyoto Protocol signed by Sweden and the EU to reduce green gas emissions by 8 between 2008 and 2012. According to the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) national allocation plan, Sweden s annual cap (2008-2010) is 22.8 mmt CO2e, the annual JICDM limit is 10, equal to 2.3 in mmt CO2e. The EU ETS meets its obligation under the Kyoto Protocol. It covers more than 10,000 energy intensive facilities across the 27 EU countries. It uses a market-based mechanism to reduce greenhouse emissions in a cost effective and economical way.

Statement of the Problem
When most countries are unable to meet the targets of Kyoto Protocol, Sweden stands as a role model proving beyond the call of duty to save the world from the worsening effects of global warming. Sweden had already cut many of its emissions however, Swedish position in the EU is much more like a laggard than a leader. There arose a question of Sweden s nuclear phase out and this did not happen as there was no right replacement fuel to maintain emissions under control. Sweden is keen on promoting international accords and agreements to protect global environment. Koyoto Protocol was signed by Sweden and the EU to reduce green gas emissions by 8 between 2008 and 2012. One can observe changes in Sweden s profile between 1970s and now due to increase in business activities and unions.

Research Questions
To meet the goals and purpose of this study, five research questions were explored
Did Sweden meet the standards set by Kyoto Protocol If so, to what extent
On the whole, what is Sweden s contribution towards environment
What constraints are more binding on Sweden
Is Sweden interested in the EU and Baltic states with regard to environmental issues
What did it cost Sweden in the process of achieving its policies relating to environment and pollution
Definition of Terms
Kyoto Protocol - is an international agreement reached in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan to address the problems of climate change.

EU ETS - is a cap-and-trade system which allows participants from eligible countries to trade European Union Allowances.

GHG Protocol - is the most widely used international accounting tool for government and business leaders to understand, quantify, and manage greenhouse gas emissions.
CDMJI - refers to Clean Development MechanismJoint Implementation

Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature
When most countries are unable to meet the targets of Kyoto Protocol, Sweden stands as a role model proving beyond the call of duty to save the world from the worsening effects of global warming. Sweden is keen on promoting international accords and agreements to protect global environment. This interest is known through Kyoto Protocol signed by Sweden and the EU to reduce green gas emissions by 8 between 2008 and 2012.

Since Sweden achieved more than the prescribed reduction, it has been allowed to increase emissions by 4.  But Sweden was prepared to reduce its emission by another 2 during the same period.

The EU ETS is the first and the largest emissions trading scheme that regulates GHG emissions. The EU ETS is a key component to the EU climate policy commitment to the Kyoto Protocol. It currently coincides with the Kyoto commitment period. Any country failing to meet the compliance obligation is required to pay a penalty of 100 euro per metric ton and is also required to make up the shortfall in the subsequent calendar year.

The EU ETS has been established through binding legislations proposed by the European Commission and approved by the EU member states and the European Parliament. The member states are responsible for the implementation of the emission trading scheme at the national level. The future of the EU-ETS from 2013 onwards will be more harmonized through abolishing national allocation plans.

According to the EU ETS national allocation plan, Sweden s annual cap (2008-2010) is 22.8 mmt CO2e, the annual JICDM limit is 10, equal to 2.3 in MMt CO2e. Sweden has carried out considerable amount of work between 2003 and 2005 to establish a natural system for climate reporting.

Sweden s assigned amount for the commitment period (2008-2012) is calculated as the total green house gas emissions in 1990, excluding LULUCF and fluorinated gases in 1995, multiplied by Sweden s quantified emission limitation commitment (104) and multiplied by
(71809.61  642.44)  1.04 5  376750.652 Gg CO2

Under ETS, the EU sets limits for CO2 emissions. For the EU member states to trade their allowances among themselves, Sweden s plan required only minimal changes from its first draft, announcing a domestic reduction target of 2 between 2008 and 2010 with an aim to decrease 50 by 2050. Sweden promoted both the EU ETS scheme as well as flexible mechanisms at the November-December 2005 conference of the FCCC parties in Montreal (ENB 2005).

The Swedish example of intra-EU Kyoto Protocol stands as a role model for other small states on how they could exert power in the EU and on the world stage through normative influence. Both the EU and UN are working towards achieving reduction in carbon emissions in Sweden.  The government of Sweden is investing about SEK 5 billion between 2009 and 2011 to reduce the climate impact. Sweden is positive in making its contribution towards achieving EU s ambitious targets. Sweden is all set to reduce emissions, increase the efficiency of energy and increase the proportion of renewable energy. The government has introduced a new funding of SEK 3 billion in 2008 and the bill also has a special initiative for climate and development work of SEK 4 billion.

To make the climate changes sustainable by 2050, Sweden behaves responsibly with the public agencies, organizations, enterprises and individuals all cooperating in the process. Sweden s legislation and economic instruments go hand in hand. The nongovernmental organizations are important stakeholders.

Emissions from use of bunker fields in Sweden for international shipping and aviation reduced to 7.2 million tons, nearly half compared to 1990. According to Kyoto Protocol, when it comes to international aviation, each party within International Civil Aviation (ICAO) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) will have to carry out decisions taken in the Kyoto Protocol and present it accordingly. Sweden is actively involved in ICAO to devise measures to curb green gas emissions. Some of its involvement leads to the following
Technology and fueling improvement
An index system with certification
Cost effective measures

Sweden is also active within the EU by preparing a common position on how fuels for international air traffic and shipping can be covered. Sweden s role is vital in European Cooperation in limiting emissions.

Sweden is also committed to a government-financed CDM and JI program administered by the Swedish Energy Agency. The funds invested in SICLP (Swedish International Climate Investment Program) is expected to reduce carbon emissions around 5 million tons between 2008 and 2012.
The development of green accounting in Sweden follows three paths, namely
Statistics Sweden
EPA
National Bureau of Economic Research

The National Bureau of Economic Research is responsible for the study of environmental effects due to the emissions. A study by Ahlorth (2001) and her accounting matrix mainly exist today to bridge a gap between two traditions in the green accounting literature. Ahlroth (2001) arrives at a national product as the sum of consumption, stock slow utility impacts of pollution and the sum of the new change of all stocks, valued at the appropriate shadow prices.

Harris  study concludes that the environmental cost of sulfur and nitrogen (in 1919) in Sweden is as a percentage of NNP, around 2. The national bureau of economic research takes a stance that development is sustainable if green NNP is not reduced over time (between 1993 and 1997). The  national capital  is calculated as the loss of production incurred by environmental degradation.
Excessively high nutrient levels in the Baltic Sea, acidification of lakes and land, and continuing exposure to a number of toxic substances could result in adverse health conditions.

Sweden had already cut many of its emissions however, Swedish position in the EU is much more like a laggard than a leader. After a 1980 referendum, Sweden s parliament
wanted to phase out the use of nuclear power by 2010 but that target was abandoned later. Sweden has no alternative to nuclear energy and so coal and other sources became a distinct possibility of energy resources. Cheap hydropower was a major factor in Sweden s industrial development.
Sweden remained an active participant in international GCC discussions. Sweden s expertise and policy experience have set the stage for other states to expect environmentally friendly behavior from Sweden.

Sweden is concerned about its environment and made progress in the international scenario. However, norm-based behavior has its limits. These norms fail to dominate sometimes. The state tries to mediate between societal feelings on nuclear power, economic stability and GHG reduction commitments.

Sweden at some stage proposed not to donate more than 1 of GDP annually to other EU countries. With less money, the EU was not able to fund its newest members and its projects relating to sustainable development. Also, Sweden has lost some of its institutional power with respect to environmental politics. Sweden s troubles are a microcosm of the EU s troubles. Should Sweden develop a solution, it will no doubt become a very influential state, in both EU and international forums.

Some of the selected objectives from the 16 environmental quality objectives (EQOs) are given below
Reduced climate impact
Zero eutrophication.
A rich diversity of plant and animal life
Non-toxic environment
A protective ozone layer.

Swedish government established the Environmental Object Council to promote all 16 objectives.
Sweden s environmental objective has two purposes, namely, to contribute to realizing Swedish environmental quality objectives and contribute to a good European environment. Besides the EU, Sweden takes part in other environmental cooperation in its neighborhood especially in the Nordic region, the Barents region, the Baltic Sea region and the Arctic as well as with the countries of eastern and central Europe. Sweden also takes part in cooperation in the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).

There has been a rather extraordinary political consensus in Sweden around the existence and design of the environmental support to the Baltic states. All political parties in Sweden except the Left Party and New Democracy have been in government and in opposition during the period under study. There is a large degree of consent within parties regarding both the existence of the environmental support.
Once Soviet Union was broken, the far reaching environmental commitments with countries adjacent to Baltic Sea were difficult to achieve. The Baltic states were not happy with Moscow as far as environmental policies are concerned due to Moscow s tardy behavior.

However, a stage was set later for Swedish foreign policy towards the former socialist states across the Baltic Sea. SEK1 billion was allocated by Swedish aid program for a three-year period (199091 - 199293).

Sweden not only exceeded the target set by Kyoto Protocol but has also registered a strong economic growth during the same period. Once, an environment minister, Andreas Carlgren, said,  Sweden can encourage industrialized countries that have not yet done enough and convince developing countries that sustainable development of society is possible.

Emissions from the transport sector were also decreasing for the first time in many years in Sweden. Swedish aid was idealistic in the 1960s compared to the one at a later decade. The insistence was to make the aid  pure , i.e., to analyze domestic considerations in the design of aid programs. Swedishs profile was altruistic due to key policy makers and administrators. The political mood in the 1970s was radical but nowadays this has been counterbalanced.

There are external problems such as oil crisis, domestic deficiencies, etc. Defenders of pure aid were pressured by industry and union interests.  The repercussions of the aid programs on the domestic economy were no longer easily dismissed.  Motives other than pure altruism began to influence the formulation of Swedish development aid policy.  Swedish environmental policy was no longer confined to national borders.  Problems relating to Baltic Sea centered on transnational, environment cooperation initiatives. In the 1980s, the Swedish aid policies were affected more by less philanthropic interests due to business and labor organizations.  Cooperation and mutual benefit resolved this conflict to a great extent later.

The aim of bringing the transforming countries into a global, European, and economic cooperation was stated as a  Swedish goal.   Out of SEK900 million allocated as development aid budget, 400 million were earmarked for environmental assistance.

Some of the major environmental events that took place in Sweden are as follows
Sustainability incorporated to achieve the Peoples Home concept of consensus politics
Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea region
Kyoto Protocol
The government Environment Bill presents 15 EQOs.
Many companies participated in the annual environmental index.
Sweden took part in World Bank s Prototype Carbon Fund.
Government Commission on waste was introduced.
Green Shift was introduced.

The expectations on the Swedish presidency are high on climate change. Oxfam International is of the opinion that Sweden must secure a leading position in the EU for better environmental policies. Action Aid, Green Peace and WWF also take the same stance. Birdlife International congratulated Sweden for being at the forefront of European environmental policy.

Accomplishing one objective sometimes means backpedaling on another. This is the case with Sweden s nuclear power plant. The referendum to phase out nuclear power did not materialize. The most natural substitutes for nuclear power to electricity generation are boilers fueled by coal, fuel oil, or natural gas, any of which would add to Sweden s emissions of carbon dioxide. Hydroelectric power currently accounts for more than half the electricity generated.

Sweden has a population of 8.5 million with a per capita GDP of 25000. Sweden is increasingly integrated into the European economy.

High quality science eliminates environmental problems but it is often ill-organized. Interdisciplinary integration and problems in a larger context do not figure in the above scenario. Specialized tools, theories and views will have to be applied to eliminate errors in the above system.

Sweden was committed to phasing out its nuclear power and there was a 4 increase in 1990. A few other poor countries like Ireland, Spain, Greece and Portugal were granted generous increases in emissions in 1990. If the costs reducing CO2 are higher in Sweden than in Poland, Sweden should be allowed to help reduce emissions in Poland as long as Poland is within Sweden s national target. Sweden can buy some of these emission rights from Poland (Kyoto Protocol).

The Swedish EPA engages consultants to calculate greenhouse gas emissions and removals. The methodology used is described within the framework of the national system
for the procedural arrangements. The inventory and reporting is qualitative so as to systematically plan and improve. Some of the outstanding principles of Swedish EPA in its climate reporting are the following (1) transparency (2) consistency (3) compatibility (4) completeness (5) accuracy.

Sweden is keen on stepping up Europe s energy efficiency legislation. Sweden considers its environmental strategy as a transition into an eco-efficient economy.

Sweden strongly pushes ahead with energy efficiency legislation even in the absence of a political agreement between EU ministers. There is an action plan that aims to achieve EU s goal of saving 20 more energy in 2020. This is not a binding target. The Swedish government had set its own national agenda to slash greenhouse gas emissions by 40 in sectors that do not participate in the EU ETS by 2020. The aim is to become completely carbon neutral by 2050. Sweden would invest 27.3 euro annually between 2010 and 2020 to implement energy efficiency measures. Initiatives were proposed to save both money and energy. Energy efficient technologies are given priority.

Chapter 3 Methodology
This study examines the contributions of Sweden towards the environment. Sweden s active role within its boundary and in the EU are known to us through various scholarly references. Books written by Gan, Haris, Hassler, etc., give the real scenario of what has been happening in Sweden since the 1970s. For latest information and data, government web sites proved to be useful. Besides, a number of books, internet sources are referred to to arrive at a conclusion.

Conclusion
Natural environment is everyone s concern irrespective of where they live or what they do. People of Sweden understand this in the right perspective and do not wait for law or government to impose anything to prevent the right of common access. However, the right of common access demands that everyone act responsibly and follow certain guidelines.

Sweden practices what it preaches and this practice has made Sweden a global leader in environmental protection.  Sweden is concerned about the future generation and takes tough measures to pass over a clean and safe environment to them. From the environment code to the right of common access, Sweden is setting the standard for the rest of the world, thereby showing its love and respect for nature.