Urban Agriculture
Urban agriculture refers to the practice of cultivating food crops, processing it in industries and distributing it to different markets around the city. Urban agriculture also involves animal rearing, aquaculture, agro forestry and horticulture. Generally, urban agriculture is simply the growing of plants and rearing of animals within and around cities. This type of agriculture has taken peaks in major cities of the world. This is because of its good benefits that it brings to those who practice it. However, there are difficulties associated with urban agriculture, which tend to reduce its effectiveness although the barriers to urban agriculture have been dealt with at length and it is widely encouraged in almost all cities of the world.
The background and development of urban agriculture and some statistic facts
Urban agriculture can be traced to have begun just the same time the cities started growing. There were a number of circumstances that led to the development of urban agriculture and among them is presence of labor from the large population in the cities. Also the availability of resources greatly influenced the beginning of urban agriculture. A resource here refers to water, land, and even the modern farming methods. It is important to note that many agricultural experts were available to offer good advice to farmers in the urban areas. For instance, the experts advised on the use of community wastes as manure in urban farming (Ross, 1978). In other parts of the world, water was conserved and re-used as part of the stepped architecture of the cities and vegetable beds designed to gather sun in order to prolong the growing season. Some other reasons that contributed to the development of urban agriculture included the following.
Global food crisis
This is one of the factors that facilitated the growth and development of urban agriculture. It is clear that by the end of 20th century, there was a global food crisis. Most countries lacked food because of the subsequent climatic changes. Food crops were destroyed in the rural areas, and those that were produced were too little to serve the entire world population. This led to a global food crisis that claimed deaths of many individuals. No one wanted history to repeat itself scientists provided suggestions that even in the urban centers, agriculture could be done there and it was necessary.
This contributed to the development of urban agriculture that was meant to solve the issue of global food crisis and for the chance of the same happening. The fact is that global food crisis threatened to create a tragedy by forcing up to 100 million people into extreme poverty (Martine., Guzman., Schensul, 2008). Food crisis resulted into many people facing starvation because of the skyrocketing of food prices. It is suggested that were it not for urban agriculture, the situation for global food crisis was expected to be very severe by 2050 (Martine., Guzman., Schensul, 2008).
Food pricing is rising
In the recent past, there was a steep increase in prices of major food crops like the cereals. This was triggered by a combination of poor production and a high remarkable demand for food. It is evident that in any given market, lack of supply of a common good will lead to increased demand of that good. With increased demand and poor supply, the price of the good will hike considerably. On the same aspect, a low and declining level of stocks makes prices to increase, the same way a significant increase in investments in agricultural derivative markets (Neondo, 2003).
In developed countries, acute price increases adds to inflationary pressures in developed countries. Consumers who are poor in developing countries will definitely spend a higher share of their income in buying of food, and the same applies to those countries that import food products. Due to these reasons, no one would wish to tolerate constant price hikes in the markets. Therefore many have resolved to urban agriculture so as to provide food for themselves and save the much they spend on buying food products (Martine Schensul, 2008). With urban agriculture, many substantial farmers will save a lot by not spending too much on buying food.
Arable land is shrinking
Arable land is that land that is set aside for farming purposes. It is clear that from the look of things, the arable land in various parts of the world is highly diminishing. This is due to the development of factories and different investments in most parts of the cities. In china for instance, the arable land is decreasing each and every day due to the many companies and factories being constructed (Sridharan, 2007). This has raised alarm to the governments on where the farming will take place without land. Land is the main resource for production of food crops and without land food crop production will not be feasible.
Diminishing arable land that is meant for farming may cause other implications including the food crisis that no one in the country is ready for (Langevin Rosset, 1997). The remedy for this is urban agriculture. With urban agriculture, food crops can be produced using green houses and related technologies to produce food products. It is also the obligation of the government to rehabilitate wasted land in urban centers to make it usable for urban agriculture (Bruno, 1992). This would help in maintaining the food production in a given country.
Low quality food and diminishing biodiversity
Most people who live in urban areas have developed an attitude towards the quality of food that comes from the rural areas. The quality of food produced in rural areas has decreased due to factors such as over cultivation and lack of production inputs such as fertilizers (Clark, 1999). The growing of one type of crop, monoculture, and the rearing of particular type of animal species has also discouraged biodiversity. Here, biodiversity refers to the presence of a variety species of plants and animals that can provide food for humans. Lack of biodiversity has caused food quality to decline significantly. One of the ways to conserve biodiversity is practicing urban agriculture. This is because in the cities there is enough technology that can be used to improve and conserve biodiversity, and at the end the quality of food can improve. Tissue culture and other genetic technologies can be used to conserve germplasm and species can be multiplied in urban areas using improved technologies to provide high quality foods. Already golden rice has been genetically engineered to provide for some nutrients that traditional rice does not produce (Clark, 1999). It is advised that individuals should try to minimize or rather avoid significant risks and impacts that may pose dangers to sensitive species, habitats and ecosystems. This implies that they should understand that humans and the natural environment are interdependent and interact with each other in various ways. In managing what they do to the environment they will consider those interrelationships and the functions ecosystem perform in supporting sustainable economic development (Clark, 1999).
Environment degradation
This is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources for instance water, soil and even air. In environmental degradation, the ecosystem is destroyed and wildlife undergoes extinction. There are many forms of environmental degradation that are of negative impact to agriculture. For instance, when habitats are destroyed, biodiversity is lost and natural resources are depleted. The environment is most affected as organisms which give it life are no more (Schertenleib, Forster Belevi, n.d). The earthworms that enrich soil fertility are killed by soil pollution. This means that if earthworms are all eliminated, the soil will not be fertile. The degradation of the environment can occur naturally, or through human processes which includes different kinds of pollution. Areas of concern in the same concept are loss of rain forests, air pollutions and the ozone depletion. The marine environment is also affected.
These kinds of pollutions are known to occur all over the world and the blame is on the people themselves for the activities they carry out. This has poisoned the planets oceans and even the remote areas. Major disasters like oil spills have ruined the local environment. All these hazards can be curbed by individuals by stopping the constant pollution of the environment. To some extents, different organizations have been formed to help rehabilitate locations that have been affected. One way to do this is urban agriculture. With urban agriculture, the environment can be conserved since the wastes from industries can be converted to be fertilizers in the farms around the cities.
Statistical facts
It is estimated that 50 of the worlds populations live in cities (UNFPA, 2007). In the cities, most populations settle there for various reasons such as studies and seeking for employment. As economic pressures mount, the urban population engages in urban agriculture as labor is available with large population in urban centers. The growing of crops and rearing of animals in the urban areas has become common. About 800 million people are involved in urban agriculture world wide and this has contributed to the feeding urban residents (Schertenleib, Forster Belevi, n.d). It is definite that with food production or rather the general production of farm outputs, the city residents can get a plenty supply of food in their respective areas of residence. With large populations in the cities and with plenty food products from urban agriculture, there will not be any instance of food deficiency. Urban residents with low income spend between 40 percent and 60 percent of their income on food every year (RUAF, n. d). The only remedy to this is that these low income residents can start practicing urban agriculture to supplement the expenditures on food. If they participate in urban agriculture, they will be able to save up to 60 of their incomes at the end of each year (Neondo, 2003). The money they would have spent on buying food can be saved and used to develop other areas of the economy. This means a lot of to the growth of the economy of the particular country. It is expected that by 2015, about 26 cities in the world will have a population of 10 million or even more (FAO, n. d). To be able to manage these populations, countries are obliged to concentrate in urban agriculture because they have little choices left. It is therefore encouraged for urban dwellers to practice heavily on urban agriculture, with an objective of keeping the country away from food shortage come 2015(FAO, n. d).
The spectrum of urban agriculture and the function of relevant organizations
Urban agriculture has some aspects that distinguish it from rural agriculture. One of them is the fact that it is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system. It is evident that urban agriculture is embedded in the urban ecosystem of which it interacts with. Such linkages involve using urban residents as laborers and the use of typical urban resources for instance organic waste as compost and urban waste water for irrigation. In urban agriculture, there is a direct link with urban consumers and direct positive and negative impacts on urban ecology (Amin, 2002).
Urban agriculture is also characterized by being part of the urban food system and competing for urban land with other urban functions. It is also influenced by other urban policies and plans. Some of the organizations that influence urban agriculture both directly and indirectly are Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC), Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (UPA), and the Resource Centers on Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF Foundation)
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
This is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts in the fight against hunger. It serves both developing and the already developed countries. FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. It is also a source of advice and knowledge to member countries as it helps in the provision of information, and helps developing nations to modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, by ensuring good nutrition and food security for all (Amin,2002).
In urban agriculture, FAO plays a general role of educating the urban farmers on the best methods of farming such as proper animal husbandry. It also offers them variety of species of crops to cultivate on in the urban areas. It protects the farmers from interventions by the specific governments, and they ensure food security for the already produced crops.
Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC)
This is a North American coalition of people from different nationalities and organizations working from the local to international levels to build community food security. Membership in CFSC is diverse with almost three hundred organizations from social and economic justice, anti-hunger, environmental, community development, sustainable agriculture, community gardening and other fields. The main objective of CFSC is to build a strong, sustainable, local and regional food system that ensure access to affordable, nutritious, and culturally appropriate food to all people at all times.
CFSC has facilitated the development of urban agriculture through developing self reliance among all cities in obtaining their food and to creating a system of growing, manufacturing, processing, making available, and selling food that is regionally based and grounded in the principles of justice, democracy and sustainability.
Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (APA)
This organization involves the growing of plants and the rearing of animals within urban and peri-urban areas. It influences urban agriculture in a number of ways. UPA increases the availability of locally grown vegetables and fruits. This is done through making land available to increase production. UPA also recognizes the added value of combining vacant spaces with growing food in or near cities. It helps to restore consumer confidence in locally produced food. It helps promote food production to help reduce poverty and inequalities in urban centers.
UPA has helped growers in urban agriculture to get closer links to their consumers and made it possible for retailers to improve access to affordable fresh vegetables and fruits sourced from the urban farming.UPA has improved logistics which has in turn increased access for instance transport services and home deliveries for those unable to get to the shops to buy food products.
Resource centers on urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF Foundation)
This is an international network of seven regional resource centers and one global resource centre on Urban Agriculture and food security. It was formed as a result to the expressed need of organization and local governments for effective mechanisms for the documentation and exchange of research of research data and practical experiences in urban agriculture. The major objective of RUAF is to help in eradication of poverty, generation of employments, food security and to help in stimulate participatory city governance and improved urban environment al management. This is achieved through creation of conditions for empowerment of male and female urban and peri-urban farmers.
3. Importance of urban agriculture
Agriculture has been the primary occupation even in societies that are advanced. any form of improvement and innovation in agricultural methods has significant importance to the ever increasing populations (White, Jr., 1974). Urban agriculture has come with improvements which have seen the societies benefiting economically, socially and environmentally.
Economic importance
Urban and peri-urban agriculture expands the economic base of the city through production, processing, packaging and marketing of consumable products. This results in an increase in entrepreneurial activities and the creation of job opportunities. This has led to increase in supply of food products in the cities, leading to decrease in prices of commodities. The quality of food products also improves, and the country can export more food products abroad and earning the country foreign exchange.
Urban agriculture gives women an important opportunity to be part of the informal economy of a city (Paul, 1984). Farming and selling activities can be combined more easily with household tasks and child care. As women take care of the home, men are out there trying to make ends meet in urban agriculture. Through this, women participate in the economic development of the country as they help their spouses in other chores (Feder, 1970). In another perspective, women provide labor to farming activities, thus contributing to economic development.
Urban agriculture provides employment, income and access to food for urban populations, which together contributes to relieve from chronic and emergence food security. With employment, every individual earns income and the cases of poverty in the city will considerably reduce with the practice of urban agriculture.
Social Importance
Better health and nutrition is one social importance of urban agriculture. With production of food products, there is enough supply of food in the city. Children cannot suffer from malnutrition because they have enough food and thus have a balanced diet. Having a balanced diet helps reduce diseases thus better health and nutrition.
Increased income and employment are other social benefits of urban agriculture. Urban agriculture has been seen as means of improving the livelihood of people living in and around cities (Pereira, 1999). Taking part in such practices is seen mostly as informal activity, but in many cities where inadequate, unreliable, and irregular access to food is an occurring problem, urban agriculture has been a positive response to tackling food concerns. Households and small communities take advantage of vacant land and contribute not only to their resident city (Pereira, 1999).
Food security
The role of urban agriculture in food security and healthy nutrition is probably the most important asset. Production of food in cities is in many cases a response of the urban poor to inadequate, unreliable and irregular access to food, and the lack of purchasing power. Urban agriculture, to a large extent, complements rural agriculture and increases the efficiency of the national food system in that it provides products that rural agriculture cannot supply easily. For instance perishable products that require rapid delivery upon harvest can be produced in cities where facilities are readily available.
Environmental
Urban agriculture has helped a lot in maintaining the environment that has been depleted so much. This can happen in several ways. For instance farmers use waste water for irrigational purposes in their farms. However farmers need to be trained in self protection during handling of the waste water, proper crop selection and adequate irrigation methods, among many other things. Farming in urban areas means rehabilitating the already depleted lands in the urban areas. By doing this, the farmers are able to help save the environment that has been wasted by pollution (DeWalt, 1985).
Case study, Washington D.C
Urban agriculture was part of an historical welfare system during the 18th and 19th centuries in Washington D.C. Urban residents had access to areas of urban agriculture land that was distributed to meet the needs of urban inhabitants and all the people who lived in Washington D.C. Individuals who lived in and around the city had adequate land to practice urban agriculture (Ross, 2007). The history of urban agriculture in Washington was mainly meant to help reduce the number of poverty cases in the city (Ross, 2003). The growth and development of allowance gardens in Washington during the 20th century was in similar ways objectively aiming at supporting urban working class families and individuals. The problem today aims in the same direction, where growth and development of urban agriculture in Washington, more especially in low income areas, relates to problems of food quality, social welfare and public health. Nevertheless, urban agriculture in Washington today is made up of an increasing urban demand for organic local food production, particularly among the urban middle societies. Historically in Washington, a small number of upper class urban residents had access to very large areas of land (Ross, 2000). This group was not producing for self-support in first hand, but had the requirements of selling part of their locally produced harvest, as food was difficult to transport. Urban agriculture in Washington has thus had many functions of social welfare and commercial activity. Interesting historical lessons and comparisons can be made as we discuss the function and role of urban agriculture in Washington today (Ross, 1978).5. Challenges and implementation Urban agriculture has faced a lot of challenges despite its many positive impacts. The use of waste water for irrigation without careful treatment and monitoring can result in the spread of diseases among the population. This has been a challenge to the urban agriculture and it has reduced the attitude of the urban residents towards the food products from urban farmers. Cultivation of food crops on contaminated land can cause health hazards for the consumers (Bell, 1998). This has led to decrease in demand of the urban agricultural products and it is the whole concept that lacks the benefits that it deserves. The cultivation of food crops and the rearing of animals along road sides facilitate the distribution of products to local markets. However, this poses some health risks since it exposes foods to a number of pollutants such as car emissions.
It is evident that urbanization and agriculture are very incompatible. There has been stiff competition for the urban agriculture, for labor and resources, and it is unfortunate most individuals prefer to work in an industry or firms than to work in farms. This has led to poor labor as a factor of production and what results is the poor output in the food production. The practice of urban agriculture has been criticized by those who believe in industrial food production. The critics argue that food can be produced at larger volumes and perfect quality in a more efficient and sustainable way. This criticism has led to many people lacking trust in the urban agricultural products (Bell, 1998).
The only mean of implementing the methods of urban agriculture will be through educating the public about the importance of embracing the culture. Addressing issues on genetic applications in food production will be important in acceptance of the novel technologies by the public. The companies applying advanced technologies in agriculture should not hide anything from the farmers (Clark, 1999). Water treatments systems should be improved to ensure that water used for agricultural food production is safe for human health.
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