Environmental Issues

Effective water management forms one of the key pillars to achievement of environmental sustainability by facilitating access and easier resilience to the hydrological cycle for effective functioning of ecosystems.  Modern organization managements are defined not only by their profit margins as Sunil (2007, pp. 29-30) acknowledges, but through their ability to infer higher ecological justice while supporting the respective social-economic systems.  At this point, the interconnectedness of the key spheres of environment becomes the centre stage in guiding the roles and the manner of their application.  It is from this critical consideration that this paper evaluates Coca Cola Company water responsibilities both inside and outside the company.

Background of Coca Cola Company
Though Coca Cola Company history dates back to the 19th century, it operations in UK are traced to the onset of the 20th century when it was first introduced.  However, its environmental records were poor and considered environmental unfriendly until the onset of the 21st century.   Particularly, the company sought to assimilate a new environmental outlook in the year 2003 when it policies were inclined towards restoring and maintaining the necessary environmental sanctity in the UK and other nations (Coca Cola 2009).

From the companys mission which emphasizes on the need to refresh the globe while creating high value for all stakeholders to make the necessary difference, environment takes a key central position.  As a result, the company was ISO 14001 certified in the year 2007 for its facilitation of the green goals through its green teams (Coca Cola 2009). While emphasizing on the need to comply with the current environmental legislations set in the country as well as by the EU, the companys management has indicated that its key outline is to meet the holistic environmental responsibilities at all levels an therefore increase the platform of its operations.

While indicating on the crucial role of the company in addressing the demands of the society, the management points at its special reference to water and its conservation in that it forms the main constituent of the companys products.  As a result, its conservation both internally and externally cannot be compromised.  As a result, environmental responsibilities are considered from a wider ecological, hydrological and social consideration point of view to create the needed internal and external sustainability drive (Knight and Creighton, 2004, p. 89).

Water situation and Coca Cola related responsibilities
According to Adam, Martin and Jolle (2009, p. 42-43), the global water situation presents a paradox.  Despite over 71 of the globe being constituted of water, over 40 of its inhabitants do not have access to clean and safe water for use.  While the statistic may appear shocking, Adam et al (2009, p. 66) adds that in every five minutes, a child dies from preventable water complications.  While the situation has indeed greatly improved, concerns have been raised over the ability of the millennium development goals to effectively address the current situation.  Owing to this understanding, conservation of water has remained critical both in policy and practice of the public and corporate entities.

Water Usage Reduction
Coca Cola Company therefore considers water reduction not just part of the compliance to the law, but an obligation with far reaching obligations to various stakeholders and consumers.  As indicated earlier, the company has over the years sought to involve itself in water conservation both inside and outside.  Since the year 2001, the company has managed to reduce its overall water use by 21.  This margin has however been considered to be far from the established target of 50 of the Companys 2000 use by the year 2020 (Coca Cola2009).  By further reducing the water use, Adam et al (2009, p. 68) argue that the responsibility can be seen from two dimensions.  To begin with, it reduces the overall uptake from the fresh water input which constitutes its main source.  Under this consideration, there is minimum disturbance to the existing natural ecosystem and therefore creating effective natural hydrological operations.  Then, it reduces the total amounts of waste water released from the company to the natural systems.  Similar to the first consideration, reduced waste water effluents into the natural system further reduces the overall pollution that can result from such effluents (Sunil 2007, p. 52).

While the saying that indicates water is life is indeed true as Dora, Annandale and Phillimore (2006, p. 41) explain, water reduction strategies in the company should be made to cohere with the organizations profitability.  It is particularly critical that the company hasten its maximum possible water use reduction to facilitate compliance with the EU Council Directive on ground water use and pollution prevention directive 9661EC which calls for integrated mechanism to address the problem of pollution (European Commission 2010).

Water Treatment and Purification
In her view, Ellion (2006, p. 54) indicates that companies management should seek to understand the implications of their operations to both the social and ecological spheres of the environment and therefore set their responsibilities from that point of view.  At this point, poorly treated waste water from a company is considered to have very harmful effects to the ecosystems.  European Commission (2010) emphasizes this consideration in its directives on regulations that set water quality standards and objectives for different uses and those that further limit discharge of substances that are harmful to smooth operations of the ecosystem.   European Commission (2010) indicate that directive 76464EEC requires establishment of the substances contained in different effluents to be established and mechanisms to reduce them to lower harmless levels employed.

According to European Commission (2010), Action Line 2 priority requires that companies in the region to employ high technology that facilitates greater efficiency in reducing the overall toxicity in their wastewater.  The managements of the companies are therefore required to articulate integrated management mechanisms that view treatment from a wider perspective.

Coca Cola Companys key responsibility under this consideration is reducing the overall harmful wastewater components and associated effects to the environment.   Consequently, the companys six bottling companies have a well established water treatment mechanism that not only treat the waste water, but facilitates its recovery for reuse in production.  In Coca Cola Companys largest bottling plant at Wakefield, the new Severn Trent and Norit treatment facility has increased its treatment capacity with about 30 (Adam et al, 2009, p. 59-60).  The water treatment facility with an ultra filtration system has been indicated by the management as a pointer to the special attachment that the company has to the natural environment which it entirely depends on for its operations.

By effectively treating its waste water, Coca cola Company responsibilities could be further categorized as follows.  To begin with, it facilitates an effective coexistence of the natural and manmade environment in the region.  While development has been considered by many to be at crossroads with natural resources sustainability, treatment of waste water at Coca Cola seeks to maintain sustainability of the natural system (Coca Cola 2010).  Besides reducing possible poisoning effects of aqua-biota, this treatment further creates the correct water standards for human use.  Many people and industrial processes that are entirely dependent on the natural waters for their daily activities require water that is clean and safe.  

Water Resilience Facilitation
The notion of sustainability cannot be complete without emphasizing on water resilience to the natural system.   Manmade water users, especially large consumers such as industries, should seek to facilitate effective return of the same water to the natural system.  Dora et al (2006, pp. 85-86) explain that due to the fact that the larger portion of the consumed water goes to form part of the final products such as beverages while the rest becomes waste water, companies should involve themselves in alternative projects that return the same amount of water to the natural system.  Water UK (2010) indicates that sustainability must form part of the companies management at the local level. Water Information Systems for Europe (2010) points out that EU companies must create a link between their water use capacity and resilience mechanisms at different levels.  Under this consideration, the companies are required to assimilate environmental management systems which demands great caution and care at all levels of water usage.

Coca Cola Company has therefore taken the responsibility to generate the need link with local communities in facilitating the completeness of the hydrological cycle.  In the year 2008, Coca Cola (2009) indicates that a charity to plant between Coca Cola Company and World Wildlife Fund was established to raise money for planting trees.  Though water catchment conservation projects were not taking place in the UK, water responsibilities cannot be separated by administrative boundaries.  In his view, Sunil (2007, p. 59) argues that the approach towards accomplishing this responsibility is bound to have greater impact in that it incorporates other local projects that equally uptake or interfere with the normal hydrological cycle.

According to Coca Cola (2009), through the companys corporate social responsibility, Eco-school projects are often funded to plant trees either in particular schools or in environmentally sensitive areas such as protected forests.  The role of incorporating younger people into the water and nature conservation as Ellion (2006, p. 71) indicates, generates the needed long term focus on sustainability.  However, it requires to be stepped up to create even a bigger impact to the environment.

Cooperation with Other Stakeholders in Key Projects
Environmental sustainability as Water UK (2010) indicates remains a highly integrative aspect that cannot be realized without greater cooperation for the different stakeholders.  While this consideration has often been considered to be hard due to the divergent views that emanate from their variant missions, environment cannot be considered in isolation if the strategies assimilated are expected to succeed.  In water management, the dynamism presented by the hydrological cycle cannot be addressed in isolation.  European Commission (2010) emphasizes on the need to ensure equality of sustainable living in the Europes cities by creating the needed cooperation between key corporate stakeholders.  Under this consideration, the EU has established the European Sustainable Cities which seeks localization of agenda 21in their management.  
Coca cola under this consideration is expected to link with other stakeholders in creating a common destiny in the local towns it operates in. In its previously described water reduction strategy, other companies with similar strategies have joined up in creating a stronger force towards the same strategy.  Envirowise (2009) points out that it would be counterproductive in seeking to address a given problem if other stakeholders are busy undoing the same.  Envirowise (2009) further reports that Coca Cola Company and other major food companies signed an agreement to improve their efficiency in water consumption from the year 2007.  This reduction was in return expected to save over 140 million litres daily.  Though on a voluntary basis, the participating companies would save over  60 million per every year in their water bills (Coca Cola 2009).  Other cooperation such as between the WWF and Coca Cola tree planting Olympic initiative equally drew the criticality of cooperation between stakeholders in water management.

As Water Information Systems for Europe (2010) indicates, the cooperation between the company and others especially in the same field of specialization has been obscured by competition in the market.  Therefore, it is critical that new areas and projects of cooperation are identified at different levels to facilitate better management of the critical aqua resources.

Awareness Creation and Contribution Towards Water Management
While the demand to address the water problem as Knight and Creighton (2004, p. 102-103).   argues is expected to continue intensifying in the near future, corporate entities are changed with steering the key understanding of the need for water and other resources conservation and management in the society. In its definition of the term environment, Ellion (2006, pp. 85-86) indicates that the immediate stakeholders are very crucial in addressing the resources being considered.  Creation of awareness and participation in water management is evidenced by Coca Cola Companys role in the green Danube project (Coca Cola 2010).  Through this cooperation, the company is able to impact maximally to more than eighty million people in the eighteen countries that sit in the river basin.  Either through non-governmental organizations, respective countries governments, research institutions and private scholars, it has been possible to pass the crucial message of sustainability to them.  However, new projects that draw other stakeholders in UK and the European Union should be identified to create holistic identity of all.  

Conclusion
It is from the above analysis that this paper concludes by supporting the thesis statement, effective water management forms one of the key pillars to achievement of environmental sustainability by facilitating access and easier resilience to the hydrological cycle for effective functioning of ecosystems. Water came out to be a critical component in the operations of the Coca Cola Company at all stages.  The companys responsibilities in facilitating holistic sustainability therefore cut across its internal orientation as well as external operations with other stakeholders in areas related to water management.  Notably, as legislative frameworks for both UK and EU point out, responsibilities of the companies in relation to the water operations must be cantered on the long demand to infer higher level sustainability.  Through the companys responsibilities related to water consideration are in tandem with sustainability demands of the current legal framework, there is need to hasten the water reduction strategies and cooperation with other stakeholders at the national and international front.

Africa has been struggling to develop itself. Part of the development is the supply for consistent energy source that should power homes and business establishments and render useful some of the machines and other equipment that Africa can use to improve its own state of living. Africa has an electric system. Unfortunately, not everyone gets to enjoy it. Because of that, African and non African groups and organizations pushed for the use of solar energy. This was warmly accepted and is now a dominant characteristic in Africa when it comes to alternative energy that is cheap but clean, not to mention sustainable since it is dependent from the power emitted by the sun. Solar energy has been an important source of energy in many parts of the world. As it made its landfall in Africa, communities and individuals immediately felt the positive impact of such technology put into practical use. The focus of the discussion on this paper is the important science and technology background, detail and characteristics of the solar energy in Africa and how this particular development in science and technology applied in Africa is affecting Africa, its people, its communities and its institutions. It will also discuss an overview and some key points regarding the landscape of solar energy dependent communities in Africa and how this scientific endeavor has been helping answer problems that science and technology also identified, in particular global warming and climate change.

II. Discussion
Understanding the science and technology aspect of the solar energy use in Africa requires the discussion of many different important aspects and concepts which helps explain solar energy. The characteristics of Africa makes it scientifically and technologically ideal for solar energy and the real condition of solar energy use in Africa and its current applications inside the continent and in many different countries inside it.

A. Solar energy and Africa
The move towards the use of solar energy is hinged on the results of many scientific studies that reflect many environmental problems. One of which is global warming and climate change as it was addressed by the African leaders recently, the related use of fossil fuels and electricity and the need for alternative and sustainable energy programs, like the reliance to solar power.

More than that, it is also a response geared at addressing the problem of electricity and energy in Africa. It proves how it is low-maintenance, cheaper and can be easily created compared to other energy sources. In analysis, Africa is not actually lacking in energy sources. Officials have constantly pointed out that it has hydro power sources. It also has reserves for gas as well as oil and coal, but there is a more important reason and that is environmental consideration. If there is a better option, it is worth pursuing, especially if it is renewable and clean - and that is solar power.

How solar energy availability in Africa is believed to be the answer to many of the problems in Africa simply illustrates the central and significant role of energy. Using solar energy in Africa will reduce most of the problems the continent is facing today. Solar energy is an approach towards alternative energy sources which is considered stand alone or an energy option with a stand alone source. The sun is the main source to which the energy and technology depends solely, similar to the position of wind energy and hydro energy, inside a continent wherein the houses and homes are not very easily connected to the national power grid. The houses are separated from one another at considerable distance that makes the installation of support structure costly and impractical at the moment.

i. Solar energy overview of how it works - As the name suggests, solar energy works in a simple process that involves (1) the creation and building of the infrastructure supporting solar energy, (2) the absorption or harvesting of the solar energy through the sun light, (3) the conversion of this to usable energy, and (4) the actual use of the energy in equipment and gadget which is purely electrical in the past but is now also capable of taking power from solar energy sources and reservoir. Solar energy is an old alternative energy means and has been used by many countries for years now. In a country where sunlight is abundant, it is just logical that solar energy is being explored, implemented and even developed.

With the advent of solar energy in Africa, leaders who are concerned with the impact to the environment of other forms of energy sources are realizing that it is now important to propagate and distribute the capacity for solar power and solar energy dependence to minimize the dominant practice on energy source reliance to wood burning as well as biomass (crop waste). It negatively impacts the environment in many ways which include pollution, contribution to climate change, and the cutting of trees (Madamombe, 2006).

ii. Solar energy requirements - Scientifically, the main requirements for solar energy is (1) the presence and accessibility to sunlight, and (2) the technological support for this particular endeavor. This pertains to the gadgets and equipment that should be available for solar energy to be harvested and utilized. In the past years, solar energy has been strongly explored by scientists. This level of dedicated work allowed professionals to harness and develop not just solar energy but also the technology behind it. Because it is already prevalent in the west, solar technology and the technology for this particular energy source is something that countries like US and European countries are not keeping from Africa since it is not top secret anymore.

Assistance programs have featured specialists bringing to Africa the know-how and even the equipment and gadget to be used for solar energy. With the sun constantly shining over Africa and the machines and equipment and gadget already in place to harvest, transform and use solar energy, the last important requirement was for Africans to have citizens who are educated to this technology. They can manage on their own even without the assistance of the west. Photovoltaics, or simply known by the initials PV is a common type used to collect solar energy. However, that is not the only means. There is also the concentrating solar power or otherwise known as CSP, although CSP is not as popular and as widespread in Africa compared to PVs.

iii. Africas potential and capability to sustain solar energy - If there is anything that Africa can consider as a blessing, its the year round presence of sunlight in the continent. This is something that not every other country is fortunate to have, which is key to acquisition of an energy that is not only safe but is also free and clean. Studies of scientists and specialists in this field have revealed that Africa can make use of solar energy because of its natural characteristics, particularly its climate. South Africa is climatically well suited to the utilization of solar energy.

The spread of the solar energy and use of solar power in Africa and in countries like Zimbabwe Zambia and Botswana, as well as Swaziland and Namibia is an undertaking supported by government, non government and international organizations that sponsor, fund and support the spread of solar energy in the continent. This includes groups such as UNDP, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the NESCO, to name a few.

B. Installations

i. What solar energy installations are found in Africa - There are many ways on how to harvest energy from the sun. Finding the suitable one among the many different technological approaches are all dependent on the characteristics (i.e. geographical, etc) of the place that is considering solar energy. For Africa, leaders have already acknowledged that Africa can benefit strongly from the use of an off-grid solar option. Off grid solar designs has not only been found in Africa but is also reaping positive set of feedback. Homes considered as off-grid is often powered by what is called a photovoltaic array.

For example, the one installed in a place in Ethiopia named Remu, which was created in cooperation with the Solar Energy Foundation of Sweden is believed to have been capable of supplying energy to a community numbering to about 10,000 individuals. This means that the cost of electricity for them is pegged at about two dollars per individual. The installation of solar energy equipment is not cheap at all. Many households are trying and are successful in finding a way to finance and pay for the dependence on solar energy, considering how the impact of the presence of such energy can bring about creature comforts. There is a unit called a home system that allows a house to be capable of harvesting solar energy and in turn use this energy for the needed power for lighting as well as for simple home appliances like the television.

ii. Solar panels and the African landscape - In the past, the idea of Africa is about a dry country in urban areas and dense forests in its rural areas. Today, the once-all natural detail of the African landscape is altered by the presence of solar energy. Today, houses and establishments are equipped with a new gadget, seemingly out of place since it represents technology in a place that hardly has experienced such phenomenon for long stretches of years. Solar power and solar technology is commonly detected through the presence of photovoltaic panels, large square or rectangular shaped receptors that absorb solar energy, atop roofs of houses or found laid out in an empty, open space, usually near the house so that the transfer of energy is faster and more accessible.

These PVs vary in size. This depends on the expected output or depending from the manufacturer or source that installed the PVs in the location. Unlike in more financially stable countries like Germany and Spain where there are aesthetically designed solar panels integrated in the roofing design so that it does not stand out, Africas solar energy dependence is still characterized by PVs that are easily detectable by the unaided eye. This is because of the (1) inferior housing design of the houses in the Africa due to financial restrictions, and (2) because of the design and characteristics of the PVs itself.

The aesthetics is hardly a cause of concern for many Africans who are now enjoying power and energy in homes and clinics. For them, they are simply thankful that something like this has come along and changed their way of life for the better.

C. Applications of solar energy
Solar power has made a foothold in Africa during the last decade of the twentieth century. During the 1990s, Africa started the slow but sure steps towards having as many households benefit from what solar energy can give these people.  Those who havent been to Africa and are wondering about how the people in Africa are making the most of the solar energy available to them would be surprised at the things that are now being used. This is because of the availability of energy via solar energy absorption and harvesting which is in practice in Africa for several years now.

How is solar energy being used in Africa In general, the energy provided by the solar power is used to power the most basic equipment found inside African homes - stoves for cooking food, pumps used for water, fluorescent or incandescent bulbs to light the houses and other establishments. Most importantly, solar needed is used for the much needed electricity so that families can finally enjoy a simple black and white television set.  Indeed, there are many ways. Below are some of the ways solar energy is being utilized and being integrated with mechanicalelectric equipment.

i. Powering devices for heating water - The application of the solar energy and the use of solar energy in Africa resulted to the many different applications of this particular power to create new gadget and equipment geared at making life in Africa better. It impacts not just the socio-cultural aspect and development but also the economic aspect of the society. Many companies resort to the commercialization of the different gadget and equipment that are fully operational via its reliance from the very prevalent and popular solar energy in use in Africa. One of the examples of the equipment is the solar water heater.

As the name suggests, this is a type of water heater. Unlike the water heaters in other countries that are either powered with electricity or coal or burning wood, this heater heats the water through the energy from the sun. Companies like the Solar Power Africa have featured this product in the website to market and advertise such product to Africans who are willing to buy such equipment. This particular product features a triple coated glass vacuum tube, an apparatus used for collecting the energy coming from the sun and which is believed to be more efficient compared to other collecting tubes which is only single coated. From that glass vacuum, the energy proceeds to another tube-like part of the equipment known as the copper heat pipe.

This is the initial process of the solar energy-dependent water heating ability of the apparatus. It also contains a collector manifold inside which the copper heat pipe is found and placed. The manifold is where the water is found, while it is the responsibility of the copper heat pipe to make the water inside the manifold turn hot. During the heating process, the water will eventually reach a particular temperature which triggers the transfer of the water reaching the temperature limit to another part of the apparatus - the geyser. This particular process repeats in a cyclical motion. The process is repeated multiple times to allow the storage of a particular amount of heated water.

The design of the apparatus is quite simple. The two main parts and the two biggest components are the water tank wherein the hot water heated by solar energy will be placed, and the mechanism that collects solar energy. Tubes connect one with the other. A pump brings the cold water entering via the inlet towards the mechanism where the manifold and the copper heat pipe is found for the heating process, a tube acting as inlet allowing the water to return to the water tank.


ii. Good for business and society - Besides households and homes, another important aspect of the society that has been benefited by the entry of solar power in the area is business. Madamombe (2006) explained that one of the African people who are involved in the business of grinding maize or corn attests to the fact that because of solar energy, the business has been more productive and efficient. They are able to work longer hours and into the night and is now unencumbered by the limitations set by the energy-less past.

Solar energy and the dependence of Africa to solar power is a case of science and technology helping one another and making horizontal and lateral developments. Proof of this is the fact that the improvement of the state of energy capabilities of Africa results to improvement in health and social condition. It has allowed health clinics to be open and operate and help people in need. It has stabilized the community and gave people a new reason to think twice about migrating to another place, thus, increasing the productivity of the people and the society.

III. Conclusion
Africa is enjoying the benefits of solar energy. Much to thank for that is the development of such kind of energy source by the west, including Europe and the United States. More importantly, it is the initiative and willingness as well as cooperation of these countries to share this technology to a place that can really use what solar energy can give. Science and technology did not only develop solar energy. It has the extent of benefits that it is currently providing African homes. It also made the dependence on solar energy easier and cheaper that a poor country in Africa can still manage the financial implications of the use and maintenance of the equipment and gadget for this particular type of energy source.

Business operations can simply be defined as efforts aimed at ensuring the generation of sustainable value. However, sustainability in business operations is a complex issue that involves reorganisation of internal systems and developing appreciation of what sustainable operations entails within organisations. Failure to address sustainable development requirements through adopting non-integrated approach to strategy development could result in ineffective strategies that complicate business operations. There are multiple requirements that businesses have to address as part of efforts aimed at developing effective integrated strategies and improving operational efficiency. This paper will analyse the requirement in developing sustainability strategies and how an integrated strategy can be used in driving at sustainability agenda. This is achieved by analysing the existing literature and theories on sustainable development and strategy formulation within businesses and applying the findings to the research issue. In general, development of appreciation of the need for sustainability within an organisation and communicating this appreciation is vital to the adoption of an integrated approach to seeking sustainable business operations.

Schools of Thought in Strategy Formulation
There have been numerous studies that have sought to develop a better understanding of strategic formulation and what it entails. Strategy development can be looked at from the following ten schools of thought design, planning, positioning, entrepreneurial, cognitive, learning, power, culture, environment and configuration.

Design is mainly concerned with developing a fit between organisational values and the norms that will be developed as result of adopting specific directions. The design school of thought has been criticised for lacking intuition and laying little emphasis on analysis (Kotelnikov 2009). Furthermore, design school of thought results in strategies that tend to be static and therefore irrelevant in rapidly changing environments.
Planning is a form of programming activities to ensure that they are directed to attaining clearly defined goals. Planning school of thought is characterised by setting goals and activities that will be accomplished in the future (Kotelnikov 2009). This school of thought neither supports real time strategy making nor encourages adoption of ad hoc strategies for instance unplanned creative efforts.

Positioning school of thought is derived from Sun Tzu and is mainly concerned with analyzing. Calculation rather than creation or commitment of resource is awarded preference under the positioning school of thought (Kotelnikov 2009). This school of thought has come under fire with critics arguing that it reduces strategy formulation to formalised analysis of industrial situations.

The entrepreneurial school of thought is mainly concerned with envisioning a state that a business will be in with the development of effective strategies. Centralisation of strategies on the envisioned state and hoping for the best are some of the definitive characteristics. This school of thought emphasises on leaders intuition which is considered its main weakness (Kotelnikov 2009).

Cognitive school of thought is developed under the assertion that strategy formulation is concerned with coping with environmental conditions and creating chances for development. The realised message under this school of thought tends to be increase in the levels of concern by organisation when they fail to cope (Kotelnikov 2009). This school of thought has been criticized for being too subjective and impractical.
Strategy as a learning process is a school of thought that champions experimentation, adaptability, and ambiguity as approaches to learning. This descriptive school of thought tends to transmit the message that a firm should try instead of pursuing (Kotelnikov 2009). This school of thought lays little emphasis on results-oriented operations which is a requirement in practical operations.

The power school of thought to strategic formulation seeks to transmit the ideology that strategic development should be concerned with promotion of dominant norms or values that are considered relevant (Kotelnikov 2009). The school of thought tends to results in the perception that playing hard is better than sharing. This descriptive school of thought lacks mainly due to its focus on clash of self-interest during strategy development.

Culture school of thought to strategy formulation is concerned with coalescing values and norms. The practical implication of the adoption of this school of thought tends to be perpetuating values and norms rather than change (Kotelnikov 2009). This school of thought is clearly not suited for radical changes that businesses have to deal with once in a while in their operations.

The environment school of thought advocates for the ideology that strategic formulation is concerned with reacting to change in the operational environment. In practice, this tends to be translated as preference for capitulating rather than confronting the challenges and threats that a business faces (Kotelnikov 2009). This approach to strategy formulation limits the options that strategists have in addressing operational issues.
The configuration school of thought to strategic development asserts that strategy formulation is about integration and transformation of an organisation and its resources. This school of thought is considered to be both prescriptive and descriptive and tends to be mistaken for the need to adopt collective approaches rather than splitting and adapting to the situation (Kotelnikov 2009). This school of thought results in indecision when one has to choose between radical and incremental changes when developing strategies.

Sustainability
Sustainability is a wide issue irrespective of the context of its usage. There has been notable increase in awareness on sustainability due to development in knowledge of the effects that businesses have on their operational environment. Environmental sustainability is mainly concerned with responsible use of resources and aims at ensuring their preservation for future usage. Environmental sustainability also involves operating in a manner that conserves the environment for instanced via minimising greenhouse emissions through use of environment friendly energy sources (Gane 2007). Operational sustainability is mainly concerned with developing internal systems that improve resiliency and continuity of organisations operations irrespective of uncertainty and threats associated with businesses operations. Developing robust internal systems and emphasis on business continuity management are example of systems that businesses can have in place as part of efforts aimed at ensuring operational sustainability (Schot  Geels 2008). Development of effective internal systems and improving internal competencies such as human resource ability via training are systems aimed at ensuring that firms maintain robust internal systems.

Sustainable business operations is a state in which firms operates in a manner that is appreciative of the different forms of sustainability. It is therefore evident that the attainment of sustainable business operations can never be a coincidence rather is a planned development. The complexity associated with seeking sustainability goals in business operations is that their effects is not clear or direct though the requirements place considerable pressure on organisational resources. Owners and even employees to companies that build dykes to prevent erosion or adopt expensive waste management approaches to protect the environment should be able to visualise the potential benefits associated with such measures (Hitt, Ireland  Hoskisson 2008). However, this is not always easy since different stakeholders have competing interest in a firms operations (Hitt, Ireland  Hoskisson 2008). This brings out the importance of effective internal communication systems and leadership in developing appreciation and awareness on sustainability and how it affects business operations.

Recent trends in business management reveal that many firms are increasingly adopting corporate social responsibility as part of efforts aimed at ensuring sustainability. Corporate social responsibility is considered a form of organisational commitment to paying back to the community that it operates within. Corporate social responsibility strategies often involve the immediate community within which a firm operates and the market and may involve relief food, helping address social issues such as waste management and dealing with disasters and human suffering (Lopez 2008). Though the main rationale of corporate social responsibility is giving back to the community, recent studies show that CSR is continually being linked and adopted as part of efforts aimed at developing positive reputation in industry and market segments. This change in rationale is considerably affecting the perception  that is developed of sustainability as giving back is awarded minimal preference relative to development of a reputation in instigating CSR strategies (Schot  Geels 2008). The high levels of competition being witnessed in various industry segments that make generation of sustainable value and competitive advantage a requirement that businesses cannot afford to ignore is also to blame for the high emphasis placed on development of positive reputation.

Sustainability is associated with loss or gain of value to an organisation depending on the approaches adopted by a firm. Effective sustainability strategies can result in not only address of corporate social responsibilities but also help an organization preserve and conserve important resources and develop a robust internal operational system (Figge  Hahn 2005). In general, there are varied issues that have to be considered by businesses in ensuring that their strategies are effective in driving at different sustainability goals.

Sustainability has to be approached strategically due to its complexity and influence on organisational resources and operations (Lopez 2008). There are different issues that have to be addressed as part of efforts aimed at sustainability which further bring out the importance of adopting a strategic approach. Furthermore addressing sustainability within organization requires the inclusion of sustainability requirement in strategies that a business adopts in addressing other operational requirement. Simply addressing sustainability affects every aspect of a firm and should therefore be managed strategically to minimise any associated risks and maximise potential benefits and advantages associated with sustainable business operations.

Integrated Strategy Formulation
Adopting an integrated approach in formulating strategies aimed at addressing sustainability within an organisation is a vital operational requirement. It is noteworthy that strategy formulation as a process requires considerations on the internal and external environment that have to be monitored throughout the formulation and implementation of the strategy. The development of a strategy is an organisational process and therefore representation of all stakeholders is vital to its success. Developing strategies aimed at addressing sustainability have to involve all organisational stakeholders to be successful. Though adopting sustainability strategies may be for the good of all stakeholders, it may not be appreciated by all of them considering that the benefits made by a firm as a result of implementing sustainability strategies are not necessarily direct (Schot  Geels 2008). Inclusion of different stakeholders in the strategy formulation helps ensure that all are informed of the potential benefits associated with the adoption of sustainable development strategy. To ensure that different organisational stakeholders are fully appreciative of the importance of sustainability before formulating the strategies it is important to carry out an extensive research to determine how a firm is affected by sustainability. Furthermore, such researches help determine the areas that an organisation should focus on in the sustainability agenda (Warner 2006). Data that compares project performance by a firm if it adopts effective sustainability strategies and if they do not can also be used to bring out the impact of sustainability to a firm in the medium and long term.

Organisational leadership also plays a vital role in determining if sustainability strategies would be accepted by a firm. Decision making within firms though formulated under democratic principles that allow for the representation of different stakeholders interest, practical decision making environment is highly influenced by organisational leaders and the management (Mog 2006). A management team that has displayed high levels of coordination and ability to harness resources for organisational good is likely to take on a steering role in determining the strategic direction adopted by a firm than those that record poor performance. In fact, sustainable development in an organisation is to a large extent affected by the human resource management and leadership systems that have been adopted by a firm. The importance of leadership is also brought out in the implementation of sustainable development strategies. Effective leadership would ensure that queries raised by employees are promptly answered and different shareholders are consistently informed of the developments that have been made towards attaining the sustainability goals (Warner 2006)).

Alignment of the sustainable development goals to a firms vision is important in ensuring that they are fully appreciated. This can only be attained if the role of sustainable development in steering a firm towards its desired state or vision is developed and communicated to all stakeholders. Moreover, the vision has to be considered in developing the specific sustainable development objectives that will be sought by a firm. This alignment ensures that employees are appreciative of the sustainability agenda which goes a long way in improving their participation (Warner 2006). Determining the impact of sustainability strategies and activities on the organisational culture is also important in minimising instances of resistance from within the firm (Marjolein  Romijn 2008). Though alignment of the sustainability goals to organisational objectives help ensure relevance to the organisational cultures, any instance of differential values and norms resulting from the interaction of organisational culture and sustainability goals within a firm have to be addressed. Resistance to a strategy from within a firm is a key risk to the actualisation of sustainability goals that must be addressed through communications and realignment of specific strategic directions to stakeholders expectations if need be.

Inclusion of effective assessments is a requirement that must be incorporated in organisational systems developed to address sustainability goals. Within any operational environment firms have to operate with minimal resources which imply that the existence of assessment systems is a mandatory requirement (Clark  Holliday 2006). Though all firms have a form of assessment system their efficiency varies a great deal. This realization has led to research on assessment which has led to findings showing that the level of appreciation displayed by different stakeholders and their understanding of the assessment predictors used by a firm in its assessment system determine the suitability of the adopted evaluation framework (Clark  Holliday 2006). Simply, organisations must ensure that their assessment systems are understood and appreciated by all stakeholders.

Assessment is a powerful tool that can be used to maintain high levels of motivation towards attaining strategic goals (Maples 2005). Having assessment systems that are not understood and appreciated by employees result in poor knowledge of the development that have been made towards attaining sustainability objectives. This reduces the platform that a firm has for injecting additional resources to such efforts, increasing employee involvement and determining how well the firm is performing with respect to attaining sustainability goals. It is noteworthy that though sustainability is an ongoing agenda, there are different platforms that can be used by firms in addressing this important aspect. A continuous review of the operational environment and developments that have been made by a firm as a result of the incorporation of strategies helps a firm determine the areas that may be in need of better strategies. Innovation help depict if organisational efforts towards attaining sustainability goals have been a success or failure which is important in ensuring continuity of processes and strategies adopted by a firm (Larson 2007). Assessing the developments being made by a firm in seeking sustainability goals is also important in ensuring that they are well supported. A key risk that businesses face in adopting robust and rapid strategies is that their resource or infrastructure ability may not be able to support their efforts. This is a risk that can be mitigated by the inclusion of multiple systems that help determine the levels of growth and therefore organisational ability to ensure they are adequately supported.

Communication is vital to the success of any strategy that involves more than one entity. Organisational operations are shaped by multiple internal systems that have to coordinate and be in tandem for a shared goal to be attained. Communication in formulating, implementing and evaluating sustainability goals is critical for it determines the level of synergy attained by parties that have to be considered at the highlighted stages. Effective communication systems provide a stable platform for leaders to motivate employees and other stakeholders to attaining sustainability goals, help ensure that any questions and problems affecting and arising from the implementation of sustainable strategies are adequately addressed and help organisations adopt effective strategies through sharing expertise and information on sustainability. Sustainability has taken on centre stage in contemporary debates on human existence which had led to numerous studies and researchers seeking alternative inputs and efficient machines and sources of energy. Effective waste management, tree planting, electric trains and minimising the use of automobiles are all strategies that have come up as a result of awareness on sustainability (Bake  Eckerberg 2008). Firms can only adopt the most effective sustainable development strategies if they are aware of the latest and most effective strategies being adopted in addressing sustainability thus the need for good research systems.

Though an integrated approach that involves the stated multiple considerations helps in improving the chance of success in implementing sustainable operations strategy, relevance to the sustainability issues facing an organisation is a critical requirement. Addressing waste management as a sustainability issue whereas an organization is worst affected by the felling of trees does not count for an effective approach to sustainability. Firms have to analyse their operational environment so as to come up with a concise picture of the factors that affect sustainability of their operations. The available approaches to addressing various sustainability issues must also be considered before a strategy is formulated and implemented. Luckily, strategy management and planning are areas in business that have been widely researched and there are varied frameworks that organisations can use to determine and prioritise sustainability issue (Laboy-Nieves 2008). It is important to note that unlike most business needs and wants, sustainability within firms may be a result of the interaction of different causative factors. Furthermore, there are many environment and resource sustainability issues that firms address which require input by industry players and external entities to handle effectively. An issue like global warming which threatens ecotourism can not be addressed by a single firm rather it require strategies at different levels and commitment by all members of the community. In such cases there is a valid ground for sustainability agenda to be implemented in tandem with corporate social responsibility. Moreover, coordination between the different groups determines the efficacy of such efforts.
There are other sustainability issues whose address requires concise and direct steps by a firm for instance sustainable profitability and resource development. Such issues place a requirement on a firm to analyse its internal environment and capabilities so as to ensure its growth within the market, industry and as an entity is well supported. Determining and understanding the specific sustainability areas that firms have to consider can be done with the aid of existing frameworks for instance SWOT, PESTEL and Value chain analysis (Harrison  St. John 2007). It is noteworthy that such an approach ensures objectivity and improves the accuracy of sustainability strategies to a firms needs and expectations. Under integrated strategies, firms are more likely to have both internal and cooperative efforts aimed at sustainability.

Conclusion
There are several issues that firms have to consider in formulating and implementing strategies aimed at sustainable development. Appreciation of sustainability by all organisational stakeholder which is developed via their inclusion in formulating strategies  targeting sustainability, alignment of sustainability goals to organisational vision and inclusion of various strategic and  management requirements have to be considered in formulating an integrated strategy. Having effective leadership and communication systems and awareness on specific sustainability issues that affect a firm are requirements for formulating and supporting sustainability strategies. In summary, an integrated approach to sustainability requires considerations on sustainability issues and considerations on strategic issues that firms face in carrying out ordinary strategies.

The needs assessment process is just the preliminary step in a waste management system. Nevertheless, it has to be conducted systematically in order to be successful as a preliminary phase of the waste management system.

The primary step to be taken is to determine or define the objective of the needs assessment process. What would the process want to achieve The objective to be defined will provide guiding light or direction in every step of the way to all people who will be involved in the project.

After the objective has been determined, the key personnel to be deployed, including the Health Educator, shall be designated, briefed and deployed. The same process shall be done for any other key personnel who will join the Health Educator. Along with the objectives, specific targets can also be identified and determined with particular datelines.

The next step that the Health Educator should take is to physically check the conditions of the community (TOPS 2010). He andor his partner should conduct and ocular inspection and observation of the current situation for at least five days, or a period of one week.

A preliminary report should be submitted to the sponsors of the project to ensure that the assessment project would be on the right track. This would also be beneficial because there might be aspects which can yield unexpected directions to take.

When the preliminary report has been approved by the sponsor, the Health Educator can go back to the community to start the assessment project itself. Since this assessment would be waste management in relation to the communitys health, it is important to involve the community from the very beginning.

With the preliminary report on hand, and an objective to boot, the Health Educator can launch the assessment project by utilizing (UNEP 2007 12) multi-media events and awareness campaigns to inform the community about the needs assessment project and the benefits that can be derived from it. Since the community is in a developing country, it can be assumed that there are multi-media facilities and infrastructure such as television, radios and newspapers. The Health Educator and his partner (if there is) can utilize these multi-media to launch to the community such needs assessment program for the waste management and its impact to the people. The launching will increase the awareness of the community and make it easier for the Health Educator to involve the community in the succeeding activities.

The Health Educator can start the involvement of the community by identifying the stakeholders (UNEP 20074). The stakeholders include the residents, schools, companies, community officials, media and other parties which have direct or indirect interest in the communitys welfare. It is quite important to involve the stakeholders for many reasons. Meeting the stakeholders will be multi-purpose and can yield several results. One, they will be informed about the importance of the needs assessment, its potential benefits on the community. It is also possible to tackle in this meeting the availability of the resources. The possible obstacles can also be derived in this meeting because the stakeholders themselves will express apprehensions, if there would be, any.

During the meeting with the stakeholders, a formal team can be created to join the Health Educator in the needs assessment. The official team can then begin the needs assessment tasks by preparing the Gantt chart of activities or the program to be followed. The required resources can also be identified to determine the availability.

The first task that the Needs Assessment Team can do is to define the geographical and operational scope of the needs assessment. To what geographical extent of the community will the assessment be covering How will the team and the Health Educator distribute the team to cover such geographical scope The time frame should also be considered

Then, the method(s) of assessment should be determined. Primarily, videography or photography can be utilized to document the ocular assessment at this stage. Then, interviews or surveys (Chociolko, et.al. 200618) can be conducted among the residents or community members to procure first hand-information regarding the current waste management system.

Climate change and global warming are supposedly among the major modern world challenges. It is almost impossible to draw a line between climate change and global warming since climate change is in one aspect depicted by global warming whereas global warming is known to cause climate change. The following section of this work is therefore devoted to these two phenomena with the first part looking into how climate has changed. The second part is a focus on global warming, its causes and how it has led to climate change. A discussion for and against human caused global warming is also provided.

Climate change
A changing climate may sound as fiction to some but facts show that the climate is changing and drastically in this case. It is important to appreciate that the earth has been changing from over the ages as a natural phenomenon. The earth has come from the ice ages to the interglacial era and the glaciers are likely to become history. Much as change in climate is a natural happening, human activities are largely attributed especially over the last century to the present.

Indicators of climate change  
Climate has definitely changed over the years and more drastically in the recent decades spanning from the beginning of the 20th century. There are many indicators of a changing climate leaving no doubt that this phenomenon is taking place at rather a faster rate than ever before. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) gives assessment reports that show climate has changed and these are trusted facts. Among the major changes has been increase in the global temperatures both in the atmosphere and the ocean temperatures. This has in effect led to melting of glaciers eventually resulting in rise in sea levels. According to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007, eleven of the last twelve years (1995-2006) rank among the twelve warmest years in the instrumental record of global surface temperature (since 1850) (IPCC, para 1). The report also indicates that although the increases in temperatures have been virtually all over the globe, the northern latitudes have experienced the highest increase. The average rate of rise in sea level as from 1961 has been 1.8mmyr although this increase since 1993 where it rose to a high of 3.1mmyr. attributed to this increase has been factors such as thermal expansion as well as melting snow. Snow has therefore been decreasing significantly with the Arctic sea ice shrinking by an annual average of 2.7 percent per decade as from 1978. Snow melting is highest during summers with an average of 7.4 percent per decade (see appendix 1).

Increase in precipitation over the last century is also a clear indicator of a changing climate. Eventually, drought stricken areas across the globe have also increased. Spanning from 1900 to 2005, the eastern parts of North and South America as well as northern Europe have experienced marked increases in precipitation. This is in contrast with the reducing precipitation experienced in southern Africa and Asia leading to droughts (IPCC, para 5). The cold days and nights have been replaced by hot days and nights with heat waves being more common in the last fifty years than any other time before. The North Atlantic has been having more tropical cyclones as from 1970 as compared to other areas. All these are clear facts that the climate is changing rapidly.

Causes of climate change
There exists a variation in causes of climate change prior to and post industrial era. The pre-industrial era change was mainly associated with natural processes whereas the post industrial era change is greatly contributed by human activities. Prior to 1780 (pre-industrial era), the drivers of climate change included variation in the earths orbit, variation in suns intensity and volcanic eruptions.

Energy from the sun is primarily responsible for the earths climate. The amount of solar energy received therefore determines the climate by a large extent. Eccentricity is the change in the shape of the earths orbit and together with changes in the earths tilt and precession is known to have an effect on the amount of solar energy that reaches the earths surface (U.S. EPA (a), para 3). The three orbital processes (eccentricity, tilt and precession) have been suggested to be crucial in causing ice ages as suggested by Mulitin Milankovitch. On the other hand, variations in the suns intensity can either lead to warming of the earths surface or cooling of the same. A reduction in the intensity of the sun from 1400-1700 is predicted to have caused North America as well as Europe to cool slightly, an era known as the Little Ice Age (U.S. EPA (a), para 4). Ocean currents are important in regulating heat distribution in the globe and they vary depending on whether the surface of the earth is warm or cool.

Volcanic eruptions are natural processes which led to climate change in the pre-industrial age. Volcanic eruptions lead to release of aerosols as well as carbon dioxide. Aerosols lead to temporary cooling by blocking the sun energy. Their effects are short lived since their existence in the atmosphere is also short. Carbon dioxide emissions from the eruptions however have a far reaching effect. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, its release into the atmosphere exacerbates the greenhouse effect.

The post industrial era has experienced changes in climate with both the natural processes of the pre industrial era as well as human activities making a contribution. The marked increases in average global temperatures that characterize change in climate today have been due to increase in greenhouse gases. Increase in concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been the main factor in addition to release of other greenhouse gases. The current change in climate has been due to global warming which forms the next section of this paper.

Global warming
Global warming is a modern world challenge which has resulted to climate change among other adverse effects. It is an environmental phenomenon that has altered the atmospheric concentration of gases leaving the world at risk of excessive warming and eventual change in life. Human beings are to blame for this phenomenon as they have endeavored in industrialization among other activities that have disturbed the equilibrium. Through deforestation and increased production of green houses gases as a result of massive industrialization, man has put himself in a tight corner with not only his resources being at risk of being depleted but also his own life. The developed industrialized world has been a major contributor to this phenomenon that transcends national boundaries hence a global issue. Economic and environmental consequences of global warming are felt all over regardless of whether a country is a producer of greenhouse gases or not. It is for this reason that the globe needs to unanimously adopt measures to reduce this phenomenon.

What is global warming
Global warming implies an increase in world temperatures (Stanford Solar Center, para 1). Naturally, the globe warms through the greenhouse effect. The atmosphere is naturally made of such gases as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide as well as methane which keep the atmosphere warm. The sun is responsible for bringing in energy into the earths climate which gets absorbed by the land and water bodies. The greenhouse effect results when the earth radiates infrared energy outwards whose portion gets absorbed by the greenhouse gases. The energy is then re-emitted by the atmosphere and in the process the earth gets warmed by some of the energy. At the same time, some of the energy is released into space. If it happens that the amount of the greenhouse gases increases, then the greenhouse effect is amplified. This is because the extra concentration of the greenhouse gases means that more energy is trapped in the atmosphere leading to increase in temperatures beyond the normal a condition known as global warming (Koshland, p 1 ). (See appendix 2).

Naturally, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is balanced through the carbon cycle. A short-term carbon cycle involves the process of respiration where carbon dioxide is mainly released and then photosynthesis where carbon is mainly used up. This happens between plants and animals. Under the short cycle, gaseous exchange also takes place between water bodies and the atmosphere. A long-term carbon cycle happens over millions of years whereby atmospheric carbon forms carbonic acids upon absorption in water. The weak acids are able to cause rock dissolution over a long period of time and once carried into the oceans, coral reefs as well as shells form by sedimentation. As continental drifts take place carbon in form of the shells moves deeper into the earth crust. Since this natural carbon regulation process is very slow, introducing high concentrations of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere implies that the natural way of balancing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere cannot handle the high concentrations of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere (Koshland, p 4). This leads to increase in the greenhouse gas in the atmosphere and the subsequent global warming effect.

Causes of global warming
As earlier noted, increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases such that they trap heat in the atmosphere leads to global warming. Carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas is emitted though natural processes in addition to the possible human activities. Human activities are however the main contributors to increase in levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Human activities that lead to the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere include combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, burning of solid wastes as well as products from trees. Industrial processes such as chemical reactions involved in manufacturing cement also release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (U.S. EPA (b), para 4). The natural processes leading to release of carbon dioxide is respiration and this is taken up by plants through the process of photosynthesis. It is important to note that carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas that leads to global warming despite it lower heat-trapping ability since it is released in large quantities compared to other gases. Carbon dioxide is estimated to lead to an increase in warming with roughly 1.4 watts per square meter (Koshland, p 1).

Another gas which is a major contributor to global warming is methane. Sources of methane gas include human activities such as coal production and transport, landfills, production of natural gas as well as production and transport of oil. Farming practices such as livestock farming also adds up to release of methane in the atmosphere. Grazing animals particularly cows are known to release methane during their digestive process (National Geographic, para 3). Their diet that is primarily composed of grass in addition to the fact that they have multiple stomachs amplifies the amount of methane released. Rice farming is also a potential contributor to increased methane in the atmosphere. When solid wastes decay, methane gas is also released into the atmosphere. Methane has a high heat-trapping potential with a single methane molecule producing more than 20 times the warming of a molecule of carbon dioxide (National Geographic, para 4).

Human activities that lead to release of nitric oxide also add up to the concentration of greenhouse gases. Such activities include agricultural processes involving use of synthetic nitrogen based fertilizers. Industrial processes and refrigeration also add up to release of nitric oxide just as burning of fossil fuels does. Compared to heat-trapping capability of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide is 300 times more powerful (National Geographic, para 4). There are also a variety of fluorinated gases with potential greenhouse effect. Fluorinated gases are classified as high global warming potential gases due to their high potential to deplete the ozone layer (U.S. EPA (b), para 4). They are produced through industrial process and such gases include hydrofluorocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons.

Industrialized economies such as the United States are well known to be among the leaders in releasing greenhouse gases. This is through various sectors of the economy with some sectors leading compared to others. In 1997 for instance, industrial processes released up to 610 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. The second sector was transportation sector which contributed up to 470 million metric tones whereas residential sector had 300 million metric tons. The agricultural sector emitted 120 million metric tons whereas the commercial sector released 280 million tons (Koshland, p 2).  It is no doubt that the developed world as well as large developing economies are the leaders in emission of greenhouses gases.

As of 2006, the top twenty leading emitters of carbon dioxide were China, United States, Russia, India, Japan, Germany, Canada, United Kingdom, South Korea, Iran, Italy, South Africa, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, France, Australia, Brazil, Spain, Ukraine and Poland in that order. This is based on a report by Energy Information Agency (Department of Energy) (Union of Concerned Scientists, p 1). Notable is that the developed nations among these twenty countries lead in terms of per capita emission. While China is the leading emitter For instance, it has a 4.58 per capita emission as compared to Canada which is position seven but with a per capita emission of 18.81 or Australia which is position 16 but with a per capita emission of 20.58.

The importance of trees in regulating carbon in the atmosphere cannot be underestimated. The process of photosynthesis is particularly of importance in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere thus checking its concentration. Any process or activity that hinders the process of photosynthesis is therefore going to lead to an increase in the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere and global warming subsequently occurs. On this note, human activities such as deforestation which has been very prevalent both in the developed and developing world has distorted the carbon cycle leaving the atmosphere with excessive carbon dioxide which traps more heat. Trees create a carbon sink thus reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere but with deforestation, this role is impaired. In fact deforestation is adding up the amount of the main greenhouse gas into the atmosphere in that the combustion and decaying of the cut trees releases carbon dioxide. This becomes almost a double impact of the process of deforestation to global warming (Dunaway, p 41).

It is also possible to have an increase in the levels of greenhouse gases more so carbon dioxide due to natural (also largely influenced by human activities) processes. Large water bodies such as oceans are involved in carbon cycle thereby reaching a balance. This implies that altering the oceans in terms of its biology or circulation distorts carbon balance. Through the interaction between ocean currents and atmospheric winds, excess carbon dioxide may be introduced into the atmosphere leading to global warming. On the same note, natural processes like volcanic eruptions also amplify global warming.

Human activities leading to production of greenhouse gases remain central to global warming and solar variability has only a slight contribution. It has been appreciated that solar irradiance has changed but by very minor proportions thereby leaving greenhouse gases as the main contributor of global warming. As per Goddard Institute for Space Studies, the solar increases do not have the ability to cause large global temperature increase. In any case, the suns brightness has been going down since 1996 when the last solar minimum was experienced yet 2009 was the second warmest year on record (Stanford Solar Center, para 6).

Effects of global warming
Global warming has not come without a variety of impacts on the climate, the environment and every other living organism without excluding man. There are early signs that indicate global warming and its effects. Global temperatures tend to become warmer in general whereas various areas in the globe start experiencing heat waves in addition to a typical warm weather. Ocean warming as well as rising sea level also indicates global warming. Other early global warming signs include glacier melting and warming in the Arctic and the Antarctic poles (Climatehotmap, para 1). With continued global warming, such signs as occurrence of infectious diseases, having spring season arrive early bleaching of the coral reefs and unusual droughts and flooding are a common phenomenon. These are clear signs of a changing climate.

Climate change and its consequences as a result of global warming
Although climate change is a phenomenon occurs naturally, the world has moved from the Ice Age to a point where glaciers have melted and sea levels increased significantly. The El Nino phenomenon has been experienced over years mainly around the equator mainly due to warmer eastern Pacific. The effects of such phenomena are variations in world climate. There are frequent episodes of drought and excessive rainfall all of which bring havoc to life and the economy (Koshland, p 4). Changes such as melting of glaciers and lack of ice age was seen as good news to those living in the Northern climes but this has come to be a devastating event. Climates were being viewed as changing to the more equable climates but this has drastically affected the world as global warming heightened in the mid 20th century (Discovery of Global Warming, para 2). Increase in global warming has therefore led to several aspects of climate change.

As mentioned earlier, global warming is first characterized by increasing temperatures especially during winter and at night. Over the last few decades, global temperatures have been rising drastically as compared to ancient days and the temperatures are predicted to even go higher. The global warming phenomenon has been acknowledged so far with the current increase in global temperatures being projected to be the highest in the past 400 years or so. Over the 20th century, global temperatures rose from roughly 0.3C to 0.6C. Stanford Solar Center (para 1) says that this is the largest increase in surface temperature in the last 1,000 years and scientists are predicting an even greater increase over this century. It is in fact estimated that the average increase in global temperatures over the twenty first century will be from 1.4 C to 5.8 C. It is estimated that as from 1990 greenhouse emissions have increased significantly by about 20 percent with annual increases being roughly six billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (National Geographic, para 5). The warmest years in the 20th century were noted to be experienced beginning from 1980.

With rise in global temperatures, sea levels are rising gradually. Due to rising temperatures, glaciers have continued to melt dramatically leading to the rise in sea levels. The Pitzal Glacier in Australia is in record of melting unusually especially during summer season. The glacier has been experiencing extensive melting extending up to a period of four months. This has forced some of the local community members to find ways of preventing this melting by basically putting up efforts of making the glacier remain cold during summer. Zwingle (para 2) says that owners of the Pitzal Glacier ski resort decided to cover the glacier with huge white blankets and spread them across 15 acres of glacier to keep it cold through the summer. Even with such measures, melting seemed to continue at a relatively high rate. The extent of sea ice in the Northern hemisphere has dropped by a record 10 to 15 percent as from 1950. A forty percent decline in sea-ice thickness in the Arctic summer is significantly high. With subsequent rise in sea level, the implication is that populations along the coastlines will be displaced and people will experience massive losses as they abandon their ancestral homes. Globally, the sea level ranges from 3.9 to 10 inches as a result of oceanic thermal expansion and glacier melting. The high rate of increase in global seal levels has gone hand in hand with increase in heat content of the ocean (Union of Concerned Scientists, p 2).

Global warming has also led to significant changes in weather patterns from earlier ones. There has been an increase in unusual droughts and floods over the recent decades which have been in line with increasing global temperatures. It is no longer a prediction that these extreme weather conditions are bound to happen with global warming. In 1997 for instance, Florida experienced unusual historic heavy rainfalls linked to El Nino. The following year was followed by an unusual historic drought attributed to cooling of the eastern Pacific (Koshland, p 5).  Periods of El Nino have been more frequent and intense, occurring within the span of 2-6 years and usually cause great havoc. There has also been unusual precipitation patterns with high precipitation being experienced in mid to high latitudes whereas the tropics have had decreased precipitation. This has led to either extensive droughts or rains. Severe El Nino and precipitation events are almost a sure phenomenon now and in the future with increased global warming. In 2005, the Katrina hurricane was experienced in the U.S. and ranked as among the deadliest hurricanes. The same year was in record of having 27 storms in the Atlantic with the number of major storms increasing compared to other years. With increasing global temperatures, there has been an increase in annual precipitation with a 5-10 percent increase being recorded as from the beginning of twentieth century. This has consequently led to heavy downpours with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) indicating that heavy downpours have been on increase over the past 50 years (NRDC, p 1).

Increase in global temperatures is a bad spell to species inhabiting the Artic regions and almost every other region of the globe. These organisms are forced to either migrate to favorable habitats or become extinct. It is forecasted that up to 25 percent of mammals and 12 percent of birds will be extinct in a few decades to come if the global warming phenomenon escalates (Europa, p 3). This implies that species migration is a common phenomenon resulting from global warming and with this follows conflict between man and wildlife due to stress on ecosystems (Discovery of Global Warming, para 41). Wildfires for instance have been on rise due to persistent hot and dry weather. In 2006 alone, there were about 100,000 wildfires that affected close to 10 million acres of land (NRDC, p 2). Wildfires destroy the natural habitats for animals, kills wildlife, cause some to migrate and eventually add up to the amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thus enhancing global warming.

Human health has been affected adversely by global warming. There has been an increase in occurrence as well as severity of heat waves leading to deaths. In 2003, temperatures in France reached a high of 104F killing almost 15,000 people (NRDC, p1). North America also experienced a severe heat wave in 2006 killing more than 140 people. In addition to heat waves, there has also been a rise in smog pollution. Air pollution leads to more allergic conditions such as asthma. Increase in carbon dioxide levels enhances growth of ragweed and subsequent pollen than exacerbates asthma. Rising global temperatures are speculated to cause a rise in production of ground-level ozone adversely affecting asthmatics. Extreme weather changes resulting from global warming is leading to outbreaks of diseases including infectious, waterborne and food borne diseases. Among the most serious disease outbreaks include highland malaria and diarrhea among other conditions (NRDC, p 4).

The economic impacts of global warming are definitely huge. There has been an increase in malnourished populations due to droughts and floods resulting from global warming. This lays a huge financial burden to individual states and the whole world. Huge amounts of money have to be spent in catering for displaced persons whenever storms and floods occur. It is estimated that close to 50 million people across the globe will be environmental refugees by the close of 2010 (NRDC, p 4).

Arguments for and against human caused global warming
From the above extensive discussion, it is clear that global warming is already affecting man and that it is the price to pay for increased industrialized economies. There are a few reasons to continue with the activities leading to emission of greenhouse gases but the reasons against the same are more founded.

The world has advanced to this far due to advances in technology and more so due to industrialization. The transport industry for instance has made life easier for man and were it not for use of fossil fuels and natural gas in these sectors, these advances probably would not have been reached. Restricting the use of fossil fuels as a measure to reduce greenhouse gases would therefore hurt most world economies that rely almost entirely on this source of energy. Human beings can therefore choose to suffer global warming and continue enjoying a flourishing economy. This argument however does not hold much water considering the havoc resulting from global warming. Deadly storms, hurricanes and floods are proving very costly to economies that get hit and the world at large. It would even be cheaper to take control measures such as developing economies through green and renewable energy than to suffer costs in handling global warming effects.

It has been argued that the production of greenhouses gases can continue so long as people adapt to the changes thereof (Europa, p4). The adaptation would entail being aware of forthcoming disasters due to climate change and then going ahead to prevent the disasters or reducing their potential damage. For instance in the event that droughts may persist, governments may prepare by developing food crops that are drought tolerant. To counter rising sea levels, governments can put up defenses that would control the rising sea level hence preventing displacement of people. The idea sounds wise but it is very costly to implement. This would hurt some countries such as the poor developing countries which are not in a position to take such measures. It is also unjust to have the developing countries bear the consequences much when they are the least emitters of greenhouse gases (Koshland, p 7).

Human caused global warming is a self destruct move which if not checked as soon as possible will cause extinction of virtually all species including human. The rate of global warming and the severity of its effects will probably exceed mans knowledge and ability to counter it or even to live with it thus proving more of a destructive than a constructive process. Unsustainable economies, human-human and human-animal conflicts and deaths resulting from disasters such as floods, drought and diseases will be too much for mankind to bear if global warming moves at the rate that human beings are driving it.

Conclusion
Change in climate has for real taken a record rate in the recent past. Higher global temperatures than normal have characterized this phenomenon leading to further changes in climate. Human activities have been driving this change at a high rate more so in regard to global warming. Were it not for increase in greenhouse emissions especially carbon dioxide, the current state of global warming and its consequences would not be a global threat. No matter how much human processes leading to global warming may be profitable, options must be considered to avoid self destruction and to ensure a sustainable world.

The book Silent Spring deals with use of pesticides as way for farmers to deal with insects who damage their crops however their use has far reaching and damaging consequences for nature. In the beginning of the book Carson describes a scenic rural town a farming community rich in flora and fauna which then slowly starts dying, with animals disappearing and with people growing sick. This scene sets the stage for the rest of her book as it shows in quick succession the effects of pesticides on nature and what happens to the humans in the area as a result of their tampering.

The book talks about how humanity has caused irreversible damage to the balance of nature due to the use of pesticides. It talks about how initially pesticides were meant to target only the pests that ate and damaged crops however their continued use gradually seeped into the very land itself. The insects that died along with pests were eaten by birds that started convulsing and dying by the hundreds since their biological systems couldnt cope with the chemicals that were meant to kill insects however were just as good at killing birds as well. This caused the avian population in certain areas to plummet. With no birds to eat them and with insects growing more resistant to the pesticides used farmers found themselves besieged with even more pests which caused them to use even more pesticides.

This over use of pesticides built up in the soil and slowly started seeping into the ground water carrying itself through rivers and streams and then finally reaching the lakes where it contaminated the waters, poisoning fish and other organisms indiscriminately. Going back to very source of the pesticides the farms themselves the book talks about how the crops absorbed the pesticides that the farmers kept on spraying while not exactly killing the plants it did imbue them with chemicals not inherent in their original design. The crops when fully grown are processed, packed and then sent off to be repacked and sold in groceries after which they are consumed by the masses. Image a society eating poisoned grain and not even being aware of it. From young to old eating this sort of poisoned food would have adverse effects on the human body since chemicals meant for killing insects was never meant to be consumed into our very systems. This might explain the growing cases of strange allergies that happen, on how ailments seem to be appearing one after the other and how people seem to be getting sicker even though nothing seems to be wrong.

Not only has the use of pesticides damaged the flora and fauna of an area its continued use would damage the land rendering it infertile for future use.  The end result being the very farmers who used the pesticides to save their crops in the short term wind up losing their livelihoods in the long term since they themselves poisoned the land that they are dependent on.

Towards the end of the book the author talks about natural methods of pest control on how they would be more effective and less damaging on the environment and that if people start now there is still a chance of saving the environment if not the environment will slowly wither and die and humanity is soon to follow as a result of his folly.

In the recent past Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been viewed as an objective process used to assess the environmental loads related with a specific product, methods or activity, through identification and quantification of energy as well as materials utilized and waste products discharged to the environment.  As explained by Barton (Barton et al, 1996) LCA assesses and puts into action opportunities that permit environmental improvements.  Ozeler (Ozeler et al, 2006) added that LCA is a method for evaluating environmental loads linked with processes of waste products in a way that starts from production of material used to the disposal of waste released.  Ozeler asserts that LCA is able to take into consideration issues that are not examined by some different environmental management tools like statutory impact assessment when it come to evaluating the environmental loads released. Presently a number of countries are using LCA methodology to assess varying strategies used in integrated solid waste management and also in treatment methods for certain waste fractions. This present study paper aims at critically examining various aspects related to LCA.

The Use of LCA in Waste Management

Life Cycle Assessment is a process that is objective, and which is used to evaluate the environmental burdens correlated with an action, products or process, through quantification and identification of materials and energies used as waste.  Barton (Barton, 1996) stated LCA implements and assesses alternatives to permit environmental improvements.  Moreover, LCA is used to evaluate environmental burdens that are correlated with products or processes through a Cradle to grave approach.  The Cradle to grave approach covers every step from manufacture of raw substances to eventual waste disposal.  The application of LCA accounts for all aspects of waste and waste disposal that are not dealt with by other environmental management tools such as, evaluation of statutory consequences.  However, LCA should be used by practioneer more as an aid tool for decision support rather than a tool for decisionmaking when used as an environmental tool of evaluating options for disposing waste.  The hierarchy of managing solid waste is usually validated by Life Cycle Analysis.

The aim of sustainable waste management is to handle the societys waste in a manner that is environmentally efficient, socially acceptable and economically affordable.  To evaluate each waste management options in terms of sustainability, tools are required that can predict the probable the entire environmental burdens of each options in the waste management system.  It is important that waste mangers and Local Authorities (LAs) utilized integrated waste management systems that evaluates each waste disposal options and techniques that aims to achieve the best environmental, social and economical benefits.

The methodologies of Life Cycle Assessment can be applied to integrated waste management to aid the development of sophisticated sustainable systems of waste management.  Generally, Life Cycle Assessment practitioners usually focus on the techniques and the aspects associated with product life cycle development.  Recently however, there are significant interests by researchers and practitioners in the application of LCA to the entire waste management systems and not only on a particular waste management process that applies in single product or process.  The results of such shift in the trend of the research and  application of LCA has brought about the optimization of the entire waste management systems which are responsible for treating municipal solid waste (Finnveden et al, 1995).

The Various Considerations in Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Waste Disposal

Ekvall1 et al (Ekvall1 and Finnveden, 2000) explain, a number of Life Cycle Assessments have been carried out while focussing on the correlations between burning and reprocessing, as well as energy recovery.  A number of studies have resulted to a variety of conclusions because of the discrepancies in the methodologies and hypotheses that were made in the analysis of the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI).  Main factors in the results of Life Cycle Inventory would encompass the amount of energy replaced by the burnt waste paper the material that is surrogated by fibres that have been recycled the usage of pulpwood savings the external energy haulier that was applied in the process of recycling and the environmental encumbers that are correlated with the alteration in the demand of electricity.

The latest methodologies used in LCA are being applied by several nations to assess sundry policies will incorporate the integrated management of solid waste together with treatmentdisposal alternatives for various types of waste and waste streams.  The ongoing controversy is on the environmental aspects of a number of options for managing wastes.  Waste management options, like incineration and recycling may lead to both positive and negative environmental achievements.  The recycling of material can minimize the environmental burdens that are correlated with an alternative way of producing energy.  Consequently, recovery of energy can as well minimize environmental burdens that are correlated with options for producing energy.  The application of LCA is a powerful and efficient tool which will assess the environmental burdens and gains of different alternatives such as Incineration, Recycling, Composting, and Land Fill (Al-Humoud, 2002).

Recycling vs. Incineration

The process of recycling process is encompassed within the confines of the system of managing wastes.  The environmental burdens that are correlated with the re-processing of every waste fraction recovered while accounting the following processes the consequences of transporting recovered material and possibility of saving consumption of energy (Al-Humoud, 2002).  The amount of material replaced per ton of the product that has been recycled is dependent on the quality as well as varies with every material that has been recovered, and which is going to be reprocessed.

The total energy that is used in process of recycling is lower than that used in incineration, with recovery of heat given that the content of energy is encompassed in the balance.  For instance, less energy is required in waste paper recycling, while paper production and virgin pulp requires more energy.  Moreover, the usage of biomass, for energy, and for paper, is lower with regard to recycling than in incineration, with recovery of heat.  Thus, recycling saves biomass, which can be applied for other purposes in the universe.

For each waste management option, the additional activities required may be required will encompass to carry out the environmental correlation between recovery of material, and energy in different perceptions appropriately choose the method of managing waste choosing between other renewable ways of producing energy, or investing in firms that deal with waste incineration and making decision basing on ecological correlation between recovery of material and energy.  Correlations ought to base on ethical views regarding what makes a good action. A probable perception could be to assess every action basing on the impacts of that action (Finnveden et al, 1995).

Composting

Composting encompasses a net energy consumption to produce a substance that will be used as a fertilizer.  Energy consumed during the process of composting is 54MJton, of inputs to the process of composting.  The diesel consumption in strainers, wheel loaders, and mills is 555.5 MJton of inputs to the process of composting.  The unprocessed material, which is obtained during the process of composting, can be used as a fertilizer.  The material that has been avoided is a chemical fertilizer that contains the amount of nutrients that are equivalent to N and P.

As Finnveden (Finnveden et al, 1995) observed, the compost has a nutrient content of 2.0 kg of P and 8.3 kg of N per ton of inputs to the process of composting. Basing on assumption, the replacement of unprocessed fertilizer in the model and with regard to the contents of P and N is 100 percent.  This shows that emissions that are evaded by use of compost in place of chemical fertilizer are accredited to the system of managing waste Idemat is used to obtain the LCI (life cycle inventory) P and N chemical fertilizer that is usually avoided (Ozeler et al, 2006).

Land Fill

Waste streams that can be sent to landfills can be categorized into three groups Residual substance from the processes of composting Residual restwasteswastes, which are gathered, and land filled directly. Residual wastes are sorted at Material Recycling Facilities (MRFs).  The process of landfilling waste normally consumes energy in form of diesel while in disposal operations.  The researchers Finnveden et al (Finnveden et al, 1995) concluded that solid wastes that are directly sent to landfills consume fuel of 6.72 MJton of waste disposed.  The impacts from generation of leachate and land fill gas have been considered for every fraction of waste in waste streams.

The Landfill gas is mainly produced from waste streams that are biodegradable.  About 250m3N Biogas is formed per ton of unprocessed wastes that is biodegradable, such as textile, putrescible, and paper. On the other hand, approximately 100 m3N land filled residues per ton is formed from the process of composting. A calorific value (of 19.5 MJ per m3), is assumed.  Presently, most solid wastes (with exception of paper wastes), are being land filled.  In the future Landfilling may replace paper recycling in the incinerators.  The waste which is surrogated by an incinerated paper is likely to end-up in landfills, where eventually, it will be decomposed.

Impacts of landfill on Environment

According to Environmental protection Agency (EPA) till year 2000 there were around 3100 active landfills and more than 10,000 old municipal landfills. 82 of surveyed landfills had leaks while 41 had a leak area more than 1 square feet. (Leak Location Services, Inc (LLSI) 2000). Further more, the State-of-the-art plastic (HDPE), landfill liners which are usually (110 inch thick) and plastic pipes, used for leachate collection become brittle after some time. As a result of this brittleness chemicals and gases passes through them into the ground and surface water.

Women living near solid waste landfills have four-fold increased chance of leukemia or bladder cancer (New York State Department of Health). Another adverse impact of living near landfill is that people has encountered low birth weight and small size among children. Birth defects have increased in people living near landfill. Heart and circulatory system defects are observed among new borns.

Landfill gas usually consists of methane, carbon di oxide, benzene, dichloroethene, tetracloroethene, trichloroethene, mercury and many other similar type of toxic gases. These all gases are hazardous and are very harmful for human health. Some common negative impacts of these gases on human health are liver damage, lunge damage, nervous system effects, headaches, etc. One noticeable thing is that most of the consequences of landfill as far as human health is concerned.

Advantages of Landfill

Landfill is comparatively cheaper way for waste disposal. Transportation of garbage to the landfill accounts for 75 of the total cost of landfill. Landfill can also be used as a source of methane which can be used for energy generation. According to some studies 30 to 70 million tons of methane is produced globally per year from landfill. 20 percent of electricity in America is produced by methane produced from these landfills.

Best waste disposal technique

Undoubtedly recycling is the best waste disposal technique. Main objective of waste mangers is to minimize harm to the environment and human, recycling produces best chances to achieve this goal. Recycling usually minimize requirement of raw material, it minimizes the use of energy and treatment cost is also cheaper than other waste disposal techniques. It has no adversaries associated with it in comparison to landfill and incineration. No harmful gases are produced and no combustion waste.

Other than recycling, land fill is the most appropriate waste disposing technique from cost prospective. But it requires lot of land and people living near landfill have faced chronic disease. According to some studies if landfill continues at the present rate, in few years there will be shortage of land. But one major advantage of landfill is that it does not require further disposition of waste while if we consider incineration, landfill is necessary to dispose ash produced as a result of combustion. And also lot energy in the form of methane is produced.

Why Waste Managers and Local Authorities are Increasingly Using LCA for Deciding the Best Option for Waste Disposal

Local Authorities and waste managers require LCA because of the regulatory pressures, sustainability appraisals, and Best Practicable Environmental Options (BPEO) requirements in the strategies used by the government in waste management.  LCA can be applied in product stewardship and development.  The requirements of BPEO are the statutory policies that are used throughout the industries in packaging ecological labelling, government waste management and green procurement.  It encompasses exposure evaluations and hazard identification, which may assist in the LCIA stage.  As a result, LCA is being increasingly used by practitioners and LAs because with LCA, the best choice, which has the best environmental impacts, can be easily identified for the evaluations (Finnveden et al, 1995).

The best option is the one that has least damage to the environment, economically viable and strong social attributes.  Through modelling, LCA can aid the decision-making by evaluation each option for BPEO.  For instance, LCA can help to define the frequency of collections, vehicle types, definition of boundaries, collection points, collection frequencies, amounts and types of bins, and separation points (Barton, 1996).

With the application of LCA, LAs and waste mangers may be able to avoid environmental impacts which are correlated with production of energy. This energy is then replaced by incineration of waste paper, with energy recovery.  Landfilling can lead to odour, methane emissions, water pollution, noisetraffic, or leachates.  In addition, the impacts of incineration are healthperceptivenesshealth problems air emissions and disposal of ash.  For the future to be sustainable waste managers and LAs should not use fossil fuels, especially not with the present emissions as an alternative, they should use an alternative source of energy.

Waste manager and local authorities are increasingly using LCA because of its effectiveness. LCA has a lot to offer in terms of selection and application of suitable waste management technique, technologies and programs to achieve specific waste, management objectives and goals (Ozeler et al., 2009). LCA can be conducted by industries to identify areas where improvements are required in environmental terms. LCA can also be used to provide environmental data for public or government.

LCA not only helps in making long term choices but also assist in considering all social and environmental issues associated. It facilitates in avoiding short term decision which may result in the form of harm to the environment. For example, polluting air with mercury or hunting animal which are scarce or exposing clinical waste to the open atmosphere which may result in spread of chronicle disease.

LCA improves complete system rather than single parts in system. This improvement is achieved by shunning from decisions that fixes one environmental issue and may cause other costly and unexpected environmental problem, for example while diminishing water pollution air pollution is consistently increasing. Life cycle approach helps avoiding shifts. By life cycle thinking shifting problem can be avoided from one life cycle stage to other stage, from one environment medium (air, soil and water) to other and from one geographical location to another.

It assists in informed selection (not necessarily right or wrong). It plays vital role in making key decisions. Life cycle approach helps to make decision in context of all parts of system rather than a single part. Unintentional impacts of are activities can hardly be ignored. Through life cycle approach unintentional impacts caused by our activities can be seen easily and action can be taken to prevent those impacts (like purchasing of office paper from sustainable and well managed forest).

Almost, all developed countries have studied LCA to see what results it gives in comparison to other waste management tools. Most of the studies gave positive result for waste management. Similar type of study was conducted in Kuwait to check the feasibility of LCA for Municipal Solid waste (MSW). Results obtained from this study also support the conclusion that LCA, as an environmental tool, can be successfully applied in an Integrated Solid Waste Management System (ISWMS) as a decision support tool. Therefore, LCA should be implemented for waste management activities in developing and developed countries. (S. M. Al-Salem and P. Lettieri 2009). Moreover, LCA has shown significant progress in Japan and is practiced under National LCA, started by Ministry of International trade Industry (MITI) in October 1998. Similarly, LCA has shown significant progress in most of the developed countries. On example of it is that Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry (JEMIA) started project with Australia, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand for the exchange of information and help each other in the development of LCI data in 2000.

Various types of LCAs have resulted to different conclusions with regard to the option that is best for managing paper waste, that is incineration, composition, recycling, or land fill. LCA has made waste managers and local authorities to understand that recycling of paper wastes have least environmental impacts. However, this assumption contradicts the conclusions from other studies.  The discrepancy can largely be elucidated disparities regarding the energy source that is surrogated by energy from incineration of waste paper (Barton, 1996).  Nevertheless, LCA have assisted waste managers and LAs to understand that nowadays, fuel competition is also a type of solid waste, and fossil fuels is the main source of competition for energy.

Current debates on waste management option

The environment issues of various waste management methods for material such as paper are the topic of a continuing debate.  Indeed, numerous LCAs studies have been carried out regarding this area of debate.  The main issue of contention regarding recycling and incineration is the amount of energy recovered from packaging materials.  Accordingly, varying LCAs studies have achieved varied conclusions concerning the best option to be applied in waste material such as paper centering on recycling or incineration.  Many have concluded that recyclable materials presently leads to least environmental effects in relation to parameters used.

Research by Koushki et al (Koushki and Al-Humoud, 2002) concludes that at the moment, the competing fuels are normally the varieties of solid wastes some other studies are founded on the presumption that the fossil fuels are the main competing energy source.  However, in studies undertaken by Finnveden (Finnveden et al 1995) regarding this issue, it was established that
The net application of energy was lesser where recycling was used
The net utilization of biomass was lesser in recycling method
The emissions of gases such as NOx was lesser in recycling
The net amount of solid waste in landfills was lesser when recycling was used
The utilization of fossil fuels could either rise or reduce.
Dust emissions where lower in recycling processes

While there are evidences above to indicate recycling has the best option for the environment, there is concussive answer to the choice between recycling and incineration in terms of waste disposal option in the management of waste.  The application of LCA in this scenario will generates results to aid the decision-making based on the on the specific methodology used, which in turn depends on the appropriate perspective.  To get the best results, the overall questions should be specified exceptionally carefully in relation to the decision required, and what is implied by the term environmentally better, the time perspective as well as the graphical area also needs to be taken into account (Al-Humoud, 2002,).  Therefore, it may be argue that composting is best suited in global warming but not in other parameters.  On the other hand, majority of virgin materials that more energy intensive are better used in recycling than in landfill. Though, some of the consequences may be escalated by distance to facilities and collection patterns.
Impacts of waste management system

The impacts of waste management system are not directly or directly related to a variety of factors, such as nature of waste, distance covered, collection boundary, global differences and applications, and the involved distance to landfill incinerator.  Waste management will contribute to consequence under the goals of zero eutrophication, clean air, ozone layer that is protective, consumption of energy sources, natural acidification, and consumption of non-renewable energy resources.

Conclusion

As discussed above, Life Cycle Assessment entails studying the environmental aspects as well as the possible effects throughout a products life - cradle to grave, beginning from the raw material acquired from the production to the end of that material disposed as a waste product.  Before assessing the environment various considerations have to be undertaken, among these considerations are the use of LCA in waste management to support the decision-making and considerations in evaluation of environmental consequences of waste disposal.

Presently, the ongoing debate is whether specific waste materials should be recycled or incinerated, to achieve better energy recovery.  This debate remains inconclusive since different studies have reached with different results.  Nonetheless with present environmental concerns and the need to develop friendly environmental practices, LCA remains important methodology in waste management.