Environmental Issues

Problem statement
The invention of technology has its own advantages and disadvantages. In agriculture the use of pesticides has become the first option to many farmers in controlling pests.  Most of the farmers pay less attention to the precautions that are given by the manufacturers as far as the use of the pesticides is concerned.  They take little caution to protect themselves or other people around from the negative effects of the pesticides.

Most of the foods people have been consuming have been discovered to have a certain percentage of pesticide residues. However many people have been ignorant about this. The technology of food processing is also growing substantially. Much of food processed is preserved using pesticides.

The international trade is also growing very fast. Animal feed and human food can be sold from one country to another. Most of these products have been discovered to contain pesticides residues which have negative impact on human health and to our environment. The problem of pesticide has become enormous, everyday people are dying after intoxication by the very food they eat every day.  Most water bodies have been contaminated by water run offs which contain pesticide residues. The pesticide has degraded our environment and deteriorated many peoples health as well as killing some people. There is a need to create awareness as far as this issue is concerned so as to eradicate ignorance and intensify efforts to avoid more harm to our environment.

The study of pesticide residue is of great importance. It will avail more information on dangers in terms of toxicity and other health implications associated with a certain pesticide. Our environment also needs to be protected from degradation and more knowledge on pesticide will ensure more precautions are carried out when dealing with the pesticides.

Research strategy
My research strategy will be based on use of references from previous studies done by various people and organizations especially those which have a world scope.

The second research strategy would be use of goggle scholar to include what different scholars have discovered about this issue. The reason I will use scholar information is that they have great knowledge as far as human health, chemistry and chemical composition of different compounds used as pesticide is concerned.

Critical Literature Analysis
Denis H. and Stephen C 2004, Pesticides Residues in Food and Drinking Water
Human Exposure and Risks, John Willey  Sons ltd.

These writers postulate that pesticide encompasses fungicides, acaricides, nematicides, molluscicides, rodenticides and herbicides. According to these writers, pesticide residue in food usually occur as a result of direct application to crop and  farm animals  as well as post harvest treatments on food such as grains in an effort to prevent pests attack. Farm animals which feed from treated crops can also pass on pesticide residue to human beings who feed on products from these animals. This means that consumption of products such as meat, eggs and milk can be a cause of pesticide residue contamination.

The other way in which pesticide residuals can pass to human is through pesticide contaminated environment. Spray drift can pass to a person. Water run off from areas which has been contaminated with pesticides carries pesticide residue. When human and other animals consume this water then they take in the pesticide residue content in the water. This work also give an example of organochlorine pesticide which is believed in the past, when it had not been banned, must have lead to many health complication to human and animals. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) had greatly degraded our environment. This pesticide has high environmental persistence and a high solubility. This make its residual to occur in milk, eggs and meat.

This work is of great importance to this study. First in explain what pesticides include. This explains to the reader the scope as far as the meaning of pesticide is concerned. The explanation of how pesticide residue can be passed from various contaminated sources to humans and animals is given. The work also gives an example of a pesticide (DDT) which had contaminated the environment as well as humans and animals before it was banned.

Elizabeth C, Jeffrey H, Ann, Thomas P, Carolyne R, William W. and Kenneth W 2001, Pesticide Regulations Desk book, Environmental Law Institute, USA.

According to this work, there are various ways through which pesticide reaches food and animal feed. Pesticide may be applied in the field or in the harvest crops which can be eaten by people or animals.  Human may also be reached by pesticide after consuming products which are derived from pesticide consuming animals. Products from the processors who intentionally apply insecticides, fumigants or other pesticides for food preservation and protection from pests can also be another source of pesticide residue contamination to humans and animals. The pesticidal chemical can easily migrate from the container or processing equipment to the food.

The work farther suggests that the way forward is not to ban food processing but to emphasize on regulations of maximum level of pesticide content in food as well as animal feed. The maximum level of pesticide content should have a negligible risk to the consumer.  Another measures suggested in this work is the use of additional label to warn the end user, use of precaution and protective clothing requirements as well as registration cancellation to those manufacturers who do not adhere to the maximum residual limits. Producers should be required to produce products which are safe. Safe here means that reasonable certainty that aggregate exposure to the pesticide chemical content will cause no harm.

This work is greatly important to pesticide residue study. Various ways through which pesticide can reach human and animal either directly or indirectly are explained. It reveals that human beings should care about what they consume, where the product comes from and the history of the product. The study also comes up with some solution to ensure acceptable residue standards which are safe for human consumption.  It brings out the fact that pesticide residue in various products cannot wholly be ruled out.

FAO 2004, Pesticide Residue in Food, FAO paper 178.

This work has postulated that, pesticide residue contamination in human and animals has been characterized by various symptoms. These includes increased organ weight, altered serum calcium and phosphate concentration as well as regenerative hyperplasia. These signs are manifested in case of kidney intoxication. Liver toxicity is manifested by increased serum cholesterol, induced activity of metabolizing enzymes, cirrhosis, hepatocyte hypertrophy, regenerative hyperphasia and fibrosis or sclerosis. The work also gives an example of pesticide residue called propineb which is usually metabolized into propylenethiouea that form part of residue.  This residual is then changed to carbon disulphide. Propineb affect the nervous system and the thyroid. The work also suggests that the physical and chemical characteristic of a chemical should be well known to the user.

This report suggests various ways through which the implications of pesticide residue can be measured. Various body malfunctioning can be a sign pesticide residual contamination. In studying pesticide residue implications on human and animal body it will be worthy to know some of symptoms resulting from exposure to the pesticide.

FAOWHO 1998, Food Standards Program, Volume 2, FAO Publication

The work urges the enforcement of maximum residual limits (MRL). The work describes M.R.Ls as the acceptable pesticide residue in a product that will result to no harm when the product is   consumed in long term. Any product based on M.R.Ls should be safe for human and animal consumption. It should also be friendly to the environment. This means that they are toxicologically acceptable.

This work is relevant to this topic. The issue of MRLs cannot be left out when studying pesticides residue. Since we need pesticides in our day to day life then MRLs can be used to govern the pesticide production and use.

Hill R, Head S., Baker S., Gregg M., Shealy D., Bailey S., Williams C., Sampson E. and Needham L1995, Pesticide Residues in Urine of Adults Living in the United States ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 71, 99-108 , Retrieved  March 4, 2010

The work postulates that, in a study taken in US, chlorpyrifos exposure was discovered to be increasing. The report suggested that pentachlorophenol exposure is frequent but its exposure had been decreasing. The study was carried by measuring 12 analytes in urine of 1000 adults in US. This acted as reference range concentrations for pesticide residues. Using the reference range concentrations it was possible to get information about exposure to pesticide.

This information is important in the study of pesticide residue. Determination of exposure to various pesticides and frequency of exposure is of great importance to this research. The paper also covers a report on practical experiment that had been carried on. This will certainly reveal the real situation on the ground and lead to discovery of new information concerning pesticide residue.

Edwards C 1970, Persistent Pesticides in the Environment, CSA Illumina, Retrieved March4, 2010

Edwards work covers the issue of the data available in the topic of pesticide residue. He argues that the current data only covers the present situation but lacks to explore the change likely to occur if some actions are taken e.g. a ban on a particular pesticide. How the pesticide residue cycle in the environment has been covered.

This work has marked the gaps that need to be filled as far as this pesticide residue study is concerned. The implication of a ban to a particular pesticide need to be studied and should be one step towards thorough research in finding ways of fighting pesticide contamination to human beings and animals.

Conclusion
The study of pesticide residue should be intensified.  New knowledge will help is saving human and animals life as well as ensuring good environment free of pollution from pesticide.

Data about the implications of banning a particular pesticide need also to be made available.