Environmental Issues

Issues of environmental concern have since emerged as crucial even to the environmental security of sovereign states. Most common among them are deforestation, proper management of wastes, soil erosion, conservation of the atmosphere (among them air pollution, depletion of the ozone layer) and preservation of natural resources as a whole. The International community has made efforts to enact international law to address environmental issues yet, the issue of sovereignty also comes to the fore as a challenge. Explicitly, these abovementioned issues if not taken seriously deprive the society of its health because livelihoods are placed in danger. This paper focuses on environmental security as a fundamental concern in the present-day, embedded in this are how these concerns are hazards to national environmental security.

CHAPTER 13
Benefits and Drawbacks of Recycling Wastes
One of the key benefits of waste recycling is that it reduces pressure on non renewable resources. In fact, this reduction in pressure is the main economic incentive in waste recycling and management. The process of recycling also prevents pollution and encourages a more responsible way of waste disposal. Some of the most common materials are like waste paper when it is recycled into useful paper, having bottle banks to collect used glass and smelting of scrap metals into useful metal. Recycling reduces the wastage of useful materials, conserves energy and conserves raw materials in the manufacturing process. Drawbacks of recycling lie in the very fact that paper can only be recycled a given number of times because the fibres weaken overtime and the collection methods and the recycling techniques are in certain cases complicated. Glass poses a challenge on the municipal programs in instances where the market for selling it becomes non-existent. Recycling glass and ferrous metals may not be cost-effective considering the fact that the end product may be of lower worth Vis a Vis the resources ploughed in the recycling process.
E-Wastes
    The term electronic wastes refers to loosely leftover, surplus, obsolete, or broken electronic and electrical equipment such as computers, mobile phones, stereos, fax machines just to mention but a few. These if not properly disposed can lead to serious pollution on the environment owing to the fact that they contain contaminating substances such as Lead, Beryllium and Cadmium.  Disposal methods of these wastes include re-use, being refurbished or better still recycling them in an environmentally friendly manner. Many states in America such as Illinois, Washington, Maine and Minnesota have devised means of increasing the rates of recycling this is by increasing the manufacturers costs of end of life treatments of electronic products. Another means of improving the recycling rates is by taking advantage of the precious metals available in these equipments for economic gain. These metals contribute up to 70 of all metal related in value in cell phones and calculators.
Bioremediation and Phytoremediation
Bioremediation is the process through which enzymes, fungi, green plants and micro organisms are used to restore the otherwise contaminated environment back to its original state. Phytoremediation and Bioremediation are the most common processes used to reduce contamination through dilution. This process can be instrumental in reversing the effects of soil contaminating agents such as chlorinated hydrocarbons by bacteria. Some advantages of these processes are in the clean up of oil spills by encouraging decomposition by means of bacteria. These processes are also much faster for cleaning up hydrophobic contaminants and are more affordable as compared to other methods they also utilize microbes or plants biological systems to reverse the effects of pollution instead of higher polluting mechanical systems.
Toxic Waste Disposal and Industry Responsibility in the Dumping Toxic Chemicals
The toxic waste disposal site proposed for the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota has been subject of debate for quite some time whereas some locals argue that this will be disadvantageous to the wellbeing and environmental health, some have argued that it will be a source of employment to the local population. New Mexico for instance released 94 million gallons of waste onto the Puerco River which is used by the Manuelito and Lupton tribes hence depriving them of their source of water. In my view therefore, since the waste disposal site poses danger to the locals (it has led to animal deformities and cancer-related deaths in the communities along the river), it is not a worthwhile venture. Against this background therefore, the waste disposal plan in South Dakota should not be supported on the grounds that it causes serious effects on the long term health of the communities in this area (Bruce, 2006).
    Wastes from Pharmaceutical companies, oil refineries, and petrochemical plants are just some of those that are hazardous to the health of the natives of South Dakota and therefore, are bound to have effects such as ailments, air pollution and general ill health of the natives. There should instead be organization at the grassroots levels and better methods that are more economically viable and environmental friendly.
    Human activity has greatly influenced the way rain water and snow melts, it carries down fertilizer, oil and industrial waste. In urban areas in South Dakota, industries have been notorious in polluting both the air and water resources despite the hazardous effects this has on the local population. This explains why the industry officials should be prosecuted owing to the fact that pollution is an environmental crime. American environmental laws advocate for the protecting and conservation of air and water (Fisher, 2004). Against this background therefore, the industry officials should have been aware of the effects at the point where there were adverse effects on both human and their livestock.
CHAPTER 14
Sustainable Development
    Sustainable development is a term used to describe the process by which resources can be used with an objective of conserving the environment for both present and future benefits while in the same stride meeting human needs. Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social challenges facing humanity.
Differences between Neoclassical and Ecological Economics with Regard to the Utilization Natural Resources
Neoclassical economics is used to describe economics with the prime focus on the determination of prices, outputs, and income distributions this is often through supply and demand forces. The forces being on macroeconomics, neoclassical economics consider that firms ought to employ factors of production. The bottom line in this theory is that the factors of production (land, labour and capital) or natural resources for that matter are utilized in order to maximize output. The market supply and demand for each factor of production is derived from the output requirement.
Ecological economics is the interrelationship between human house keeping and natures house keeping, this is about how economic and ecological systems interact. The economy is perceived as being a component of the environment in which there is a constant exchange of energy and matter. In this interaction, humans extract a number of matters from the environment -like timber and oil- and they give back to the environment in the form of sulphur oxide and carbon dioxide necessary for their living. It would therefore be impossible for humans to satisfy their needs without having to interact with the natural resources the economy and the environment are interdependent and what happens with the economic resources affects the economy.
Difference between Open Access and Communal Resource Management
Communal resource management is a communal property regime where communities would manage forests and other natural resources for their future benefits. These were ether applicable where the property rights had not been developed or property regimes were not codified. Open access property regimes are systems where there are natural resources which are costly and whose sizes or characteristics make it impossible to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its use. A good example is fishing grounds, pastures, forests, air and the atmosphere. A common pool resource typically refers to a core resource with limited extractable fringe units the core resource is often protected so as to guarantee continuous exploitation of the common resource.
Considerations for Assigning Value in a Cost Benefit Study
In a cost-benefit analysis, the cost of undertaking a project if often compared to the benefits of the same to study the viability of the project. Either the costs or the benefits outweigh the other. Some dynamics such as the opportunities for good health and the existence of rare and endangered species in a far away place are immeasurable and monetary value can not easily be accorded to such factors. In such a scenario therefore, one should assign the highest value to good health and conserving the rare and endangered species because if the result was negative, it would therefore be important to save such species or do our best to save the situation (Cunningham, 2007).
    There is an imminent danger in assuming that factors are immeasurable in a cost-benefit analysis, this is because in the present world, everything ought to have a monetary value assigned to it to determine what its worth. Analytically, the sole objective of organizations is to make profits and as a result, they would want to focus on what generates high returns other that what is not determinable in value. Therefore, there is a risk (financial or otherwise) in assuming that things are priceless.
Premises and Definitions Employed in the Justification for Sustainable Resource Management
When an ecologist argues that natural resources are irreplaceable, the underlying premise is that there is no possibility of substituting resources, the same argument that applies when animal species get extinct. The rationale behind this argument is straightforward, due to the economic pressure in the present day, exploitation of natural resources for economic gain is a continuous process and due to past occurrences, the void will not be filled by any means. Past events are used to predict the future in this case therefore an ecologist believes that no technology can be used to regain depleted natural resources.
    Economists on the other hand argue that that ingenuity and enterprise will find substitutes for most resources, the underlying premise is that much as human population has increased,  resources have kept pace with population growth such that, the earth can still support the growing population. The environment is very delicate and complicated to an extent that depletion of resources will be replaced in some way. Practical examples are through increasing soil fertility through the use of fertilizers, inventing other artificial resources to replace the natural resources and ensuring the environment can be sustainable (Cunningham, 1999).
Reasons behind the Ineffectiveness of International Conventions and Treaties
International Environmental Conventions and Treaties are often weak and can not adequately protect the environment for the very reason than most states want to protect their sovereignty. There therefore lacks a legal framework to enforce these provisions owing to the fact that there may be no collective responsibility and persecution for non compliance. Insofar as environmental problems do not exclude sovereign borders, leaders of various sovereign states still exploit their natural resources as they please. In any case the operating system of a state is incomparable with international laws on the environmental protection it therefore follows that international laws can not tackle environmental concerns in isolation.
International treaties can be effective if governments practise extensive cooperation in the realization that their states are equally at risk, this is by enacting international laws and enforcing them and being committed to them. Among other things, food, agricultural, environmental and industrial policies should be enacted by different countries that are effective if international environmental laws can be effective. Public awareness should be fostered promotion of participation programmes by the public and training the general public of the dangers of these pollutants, governments should also invest more on environmental research.
The National Environmental Educational Act which first became law in 1970 and the Department of Education are primarily concerned about developing environmental education curricula and providing professional development for teachers. The congress has tried time and again to increase the role of the various states in this department U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has continued to receive financial support by means of appropriation bills. Increasing Public awareness on environmental issues has been of central focus through this, environmental sciences have been promoted two of which are offered by the University of Rhode Island.
Citizen Science
Citizen science is the incorporation of citizens in the planning process, data collection or the analyzing process of scientific project, this normally has benefits for both the communities and the organizations involved. Such outfits therefore cut down on resource costs, provides an understanding to the citizen scientists for them to educate other citizens and building trust between citizens, conservation organizations and citizens. Overtime, citizen science projects have led to a profound understanding of the projects on the ground and natural resource management issues.
The Wildlands CPRs project is one of such important projects with sole objectives of removing roads from water cut-off points-studying the effects in the short and long run- and increasing the communitys understanding of the importance of restoring watersheds. In the first year of its incorporation, the citizen scientists collected data on road removal, contracted the services of a wildlife biologist to research on the wildlife protocols. Vegetation samples have been taken to identify hazardous weed problems and so has stream sediment been measured to establish stream integrity.
CHAPTER 15
Environmental Protection
Environmental protection is the practise of protection the environment either as organizations, individuals or as the government. Environmental protection can however be excessive in some cases this is where conservation, say of land, deprives citizens from rights of erecting buildings in certain places thereby reducing the tax base. This is based on the fact that income becomes low due to some protective regulations resources can no longer be exploited.
    The United States refinery industry is one of the outfits affected and or oppressed by government regulations on the environment, this is owing to the fact that they incur costs of up to four hundred and fifty dollars yearly in compliance with these government regulations. The Environmental Protection Agency has strict enforcement plans of a program against the explosive nature of gasoline used by these industries. In principle, the government requires these refinery industries to reduce the use of gasoline to an extent of nine pounds per every square inch under the Reid vapour pressure system of measurement. This therefore poses superfluous costs which have to be incurred by the stakeholders of such companies.
    Environmental protection can be justified based on the premises that amounts of concentrated chemicals from industries and other pollutants contaminate the waterways and this causes the death of wildlife and ailments for human beings. Fresh water, air and basically unpolluted natural resources ensure that what is consumed into the human body is healthy. Environmental protection regulations ensure that greenhouse gas emissions are minimized and so pollution of the atmosphere is subsequently reduced, this has a counter effect on the dangers of global climate rise (Bruce, 2006). The environment also provides a form of livelihood for wildlife and human beings, the ecosystem provides shelter for wildlife. Natural resources ought to be conserved for the very reason that human needs are both for the present and the future.
Justifying the Argument that a Small Number of Individuals Can Change the World
Margaret Mead argued that a small group of committed individuals is what is needed to change the world, by this she meant that each one of us can change the world if we organize and focus our energies. Insofar as a large group can have a huge impact on a worthy cause, a small group can still be useful in the absence of a big group and for that reason there is no explanation for inaction (Lutkehaus, 2008). Particular individuals or groups of people who made history in the world begun with a particular change in conscience and took a stand. Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, Rosa Parks, Abraham Lincoln, Mother Theresa and Nancy Goodman Brinker (Susan G. Komen Foundations) are just some examples of people who tried to change the world.
    The shift in conscience once pioneered by an individual therefore spread to the rest of other like minded people and this is how the process of change begins. The process of change needs individuals who are visionary, energetic, and wise for any tangible difference to be achieved in the society (Mead, 2005). Entrepreneurs in scores of fields drive change that begins at an individual level, implements it by the assistance of a few committed individuals and thought communication, the process of transformation is instigated.