Environmental Issues

The evaluation carried out by the three working groups of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the IPCC is the base for the 2007 climatic change synthesis report providing an extensive outlook of the change in climate as the concluding component of the IPCCs fourth assessment report.  Global warming was one of the observed changes in climate.  According to IPCC, the highest level of global warming since 1980 was observed between the 12 years period of 1995-2006. IPCC states that global warming was observed to be greater on the northern latitudes than the southern latitudes. Regions covered by land were observed to warm faster than regions covered by sea.

The three groups of the IPCC reported that global warming has remarkably led to the increase in the sea level. The rise in sea level was attributed to thermal expansion, melting of ice caps and glaciers and also the polar ice sheets. The level of snow has greatly decreased as a result of global warming with a satellite data recorded since 1978 showing a remarkable annual shrinking range of between 2.1 to 3.3. Summers are the ones that have been hit hard by the decrease in snow levels showing an annual decrease range between 5.0 to 9.8. The IPCC reported that for the last 50 years or so, coldness which was a remarkable characteristic of days and nights have been replaced by hot nights and days. Precipitation events have also increased over the same period. Increase in temperature has greatly affected the global natural resources. For example, glacial lakes have increased considerably due to changes in snow, ice and frozen grounds. The increased overflow and discharge of spring peaks in advance in many glacier and snow fed rivers have greatly affected the water bodies.

Rising water temperatures have also been attributed to the changes in the terrestrial ecosystem. Many of the observational changes in the physical and the biological system were in one way or the other related to global warming. Other effects that have been noted as a result of global warming on the natural and human environment are early planting in spring and alteration in factors that destroy the forest systems like fire and vermin. Global warming has led to increase in mortality rates related to heat in certain European regions. High temperatures have been associated with the changes in some vectors for infectious diseases and also increased levels of allergic pollen in the northern hemisphere.

Increased concentration of greenhouse gases and aerosols in the atmosphere affects the solar radiation thereby altering the energy balance of the climate system leading to the development of global warming. Greenhouse gases emission was marked to have attained a 70 increase between the periods of 1970 and 2004. Between the same periods, carbon dioxide, the main gas associated with greenhouse gases and produced mainly from combustion of fossil fuel reached an emission level of 80. Human activities were attributed to the increased levels of carbon dioxide whose concentration was recorded as 379 ppm, methane whose concentration was recorded as 1774 ppm and nitrous oxide since the year 1950. The third assessment report had indicated human influence on the environment as a major cause of disturbance that is recorded including the rise in sea levels, changes in wind patterns, increased environmental temperatures, and increased frequency of heavy precipitation events.

The natural variability cannot be held responsible for all the physical and biological variations. Several studies have been shown to have linked these variations to global warming. These studies are however hindered by the time scale, greater natural climatic variations, and non climatic factors contributors. As indicated by the IPCC, the generation of greenhouse gases is likely to increase from between 25 to 90 between the years 2000-2030 and beyond as the use of fossil fuels is not coming to an end any time soon. The IPCC projected an average increase of temperature by 0.2c per decade for the next two decades. It also projected an average rise in the sea level and surface warming. The IPCC also noted some of the regional changes that include greater warming of land, mostly marked in the northern hemispheres than the southern one, drastic reduction in snow levels due to increased depth of thawing, increased frequency of heat waves and heavy precipitation, likely increase in the strength of tropical storms, shifting of the precipitations, winds and temperature patterns poleward, and finally an increase in the precipitation levels in the high latitudes and a decrease of the same in the lower latitudes.

The IPCC also projected an increase in the river overflow and availability of water. Climatic changes are also predicted to cause a major decrease in water resources in many semi arid areas. There are some sectors and regions most likely to be affected by the adverse changes in climate which were noted. The terrestrial ecosystems were noted to be prone to climatic change effects. For example, the mountain regions are very sensitive to warming whereas the Mediterranean ecosystems are heavily affected by reduction in rainfall and precipitation reduction in the tropical rainforests. Reduction of water in low latitudes affects agriculture. Heat waves are experienced at increased frequencies in the low lying coastal regions.  Some of the regions noted to be heavily affected by the climatic changes are the Arctic, Africa due to its low adaptive capacity to climate changes, small islands where infrastructure is projected to climate changes, Asian and African megadeltas where a very large population is exposed to increase in aquatic levels. Increased levels of carbon dioxide have led to a significant decrease in the potential hydrogen concentration level in oceans.  The decrease in the hydrogen concentration of global Surface Ocean was projected to be between 0.14 and 0.35 units over the 21st century. The increased acidification of the oceans is predicted to have drastic effects to marine biosphere.

The IPCC stated some of the adverse effects of climate change projected towards various continents. In Africa, a very huge population will be greatly affected by water shortage, rainfall dependent yields will be greatly reduced, and all the population found along the low lying coastal regions will be affected by the increase in sea levels by the year 2020. Asia will face an increased reduction in fresh water availability. Asian coastal regions will be adversely affected by increased floods as a result of rise in sea water levels. Urbanization, industrialization and development in Asia will be greatly affected as they depend on natural resources which will be greatly affected by the change in climate. An increase in incidences of the diseases associated with flooding will also be experienced in Asia by the year 2050. Australia will experience an increased loss of biodiversity and by the year 2030 it will be facing a severe water shortage. Agricultural production is also projected to decrease in Australia. Increased frequency of floods will be experienced by the inhabitants of the Australian low lying coastal regions by the year 2050.

In Europe, rise in sea levels will be accompanied by increased flooding and storms. Glacier level and snow cover was projected to greatly decrease by as much as 60 by 2080. Increased heat waves and wildfires are also projected to increase the health risks in Europe. Latin America will experience a considerable loss in biodiversity, decrease in agricultural production and a reduction in the availability of fresh water. Heat waves are projected to greatly increase in the cities as the coastal inhabitants will be greatly affected by pollutions as a result of increased flooding in North America. Increase in sea levels will cause stormy floods in the small islands which will greatly erode the beaches thereby deteriorating the coastal order. Some of the low cost adaptation strategies, in addition to the existing ones, can be used to reduce susceptibility to environmental alterations.

These are rain water harvesting, adjustment of planting dates and crop varieties, development of strong infrastructure along the coastal regions, proper health action plans, and use of renewable sources of energy. However, these adaptations are complicated by the hindering blocks that limit the implementation and effectiveness of these measures. These limiting factors exist from one society to the other depending on that societys productive base. Adequate policies should be implemented to reduce the production of greenhouse gases. The international cooperation will help reduce the generation of green house gases.

The IPCC strengthened the five reasons for concern identified by the third assessment report by making them a framework to consider key susceptibilities. These are the risks posed to threatened systems that are special, risk of adverse events of weather, the distribution of impact and susceptibilities, cumulative effects, and risk of extensive singularitie. Though policies and adaptations alone cannot eliminate the effects of climate change, they can complement each other and the final result would be a considerable reduction in the risks associated with climate change. Advanced technologies which emit low levels of carbon dioxide in conjunction with proper policies and adaptations will greatly reduce greenhouse gases emission by as much as 80. Annual costs, as a result of climatic changes impact, are likely to increase. However, analytical results of ways aimed at alleviating global warming and their costs do not yet show the exact pathway to be followed where benefits exceed costs.

There is still hope for the environment, and even greater hope for a bright and green future. The speakers are all testaments to this hope, and I am confident that there are a lot more like them in our world. Deep thought and contemplation made me realize that I can be like them. I can promote change in the community in my own ways in order to promote sustainability and going green. I also realized that if I can be like them, other students and other people can also follow suit. It is just a matter of taking the initiative to change, and a good way to do so is to adopt and if possible, improve what the three speakers shared with us in order to care for the environment.
   
We can start this change by taking on the challenge of Rachel Barge. We can make a difference if we put ourselves into it. We can achieve global sustainability to our own little ways. Our endeavors, no matter how small it may be, if we combine all of it, we can make an impact on our society. Her idea about the Green Initiative Fund is a great way to collect money and support for campaigns. I would also suggest that some students, if not all, could pledge a small portion of their allowance to the fund. A dollar or two may not go unnoticed, but if we combine all of these from every student here today, we would surely have a substantial amount to start our campaigns. Rachel is a great inspiration for students because shes putting her words into action. I know all of us have great ideas, magnificent plans on matters concerning our environment. However, not all of us have the courage to voice out our ideas. With Rachel as an inspiration, I realized that if we try to share our idea with one or two people at a time, we could somehow get them to share it with others. Even without taking the stage, we are able to spread our ideas that could help save the environment again, all it takes is the initiative.
   
Just like Rachel, I also find Billy Parish very inspiring, specially with everything that he has done for the environment. Just starting the Energy Action Coalition is a gargantuan undertaking, and he was able to do so because he is really looking for change. Climate change is a very big concern nowadays, with really no clear way on how we will be able to address it. But with Billy Parish and his organization, we are somehow enlightened about this matter. For me, the most important way to address a problem is to be informed first. In the case of climate change, we cannot really take the necessary steps to solve it if we dont know anything about it. With the help of Billy, more and more people are learning about the issue, more and more people are realizing the intensity of this problem, and more and more people are already acting to solve it.
   
Last but not the least, Erica Fernandez touching account is really an eye opener for us all. We are not aware of her situation, but I think the reality is that there are more people like Erica. There are a lot of people living in cities characterized by pollution, and they cant do anything about it. I find Erica very brave to stand up for her cause and voice out her opinion. We need more people like her, more people to stand up and demand that we put an end to all our destructive ways. Her case is complicated by other issues like financial concerns or racial problems, but still she willingly shared her story. Her bravery is a very admirable trait, and I think it is needed by everyone who wishes to see change for the good of our environment. We are facing perhaps the most powerful people and corporations with our call for a better environment. With bravery and the initiative to take part in such endeavors and do our share for the environment, we can really achieve a better environment and a better future.
   
Overall, the content of this event was very relevant and motivation. The experiences shared by the three speakers show that there are a lot of ways to deal with the issue of sustainability and going green.

First driver of sustainability for the airline industry is the use of efficient fuel. The oil prices throughout the world are rising that of course results in the incurring high costs of fuel for the airline industry. This issue works as a chain reaction, because when the airline industry faces high fuel costs it increases the fare prices, and when the fare prices are increased the customers dont get enticed to buy the tickets and travel. Such behavior of customers results in the generation of low revenues or even losses for the industry. Moreover, airline companies can adopt the usage of environmental-friendly technologies and software such as IHS, which can provide the company with cost-effective solutions.

On the other hand, if the efficient fuel that costs lesser and fuel efficient technologies are used, there would be many advantages of doing so. The industry would have to bear low costs of fuel, better fuel management, and high revenues due to increased sales that would result due to low fare prices.

Rules, regulations, and policies are the second driver of sustainability for the airline industry. The role played by the governments, law governing bodies, and the summits held among the countries is very crucial. Though many governments introduce several rules and regulations, but the implementation of such rules is not usually up to the mark and all go in vain due to the lack of proper management. If each country play its own role at its best by introducing strict rules and regulations regarding the emission of gases, usage of fuels, and implementation of environmental friendly policies by the airline companies then huge probability lies that the level of environment can be maintained.

Laws must be initiated by every government and law governing bodies to force the airline companies to operate ethically in their business. Ethical and social responsibility must be abided by the companies it is because unethical conduction of business often results in the manipulation by the companies and the social costs keep on rising. Social costs are the costs that are borne other than the manufacturers or producers (Velasquez). Policies of the companies towards the environmental sustainability should be rigid and must ensure the due care for the customers and the environment as a whole.

Customers always go after the product or service that is offered to them in a way that really entices them by showing that there is something in the product for the consumers. Thats what Marketing is all about. Companies spend millions of dollars each year to promote their products and services in the market with the expectation that the promotion would affect consumers attitudes and preferences, hence resulting in the purchase of their products. Offering safety, reliability, and low fares to the customers is not an easy task for the airline companies. Companies must improve their internal processes, management, strategies, and measures of performance to maintain the environment. Moreover, companies must keep skillful and devoted staff, use natural resources efficiently, and introduce programs to combat global warming.

Efficient service providing along with the punctuality in flight scheduling is the third driver of sustainability for the airline industry. Of course, people also want to contribute their part for the betterment of the environment but they are not motivated to do so. If airline companies start delivering services efficiently, schedule their flights without delays, and make use of certain products that not only let the companies adopt sustainable development but also increase awareness and motivation among the passengers to go green and save our planet. This will boost up the reputation of the airline company and also benefit it along with the society and environment. For example, KLM of Netherlands has a great reputation in its industry and that became possible with the support of other parties involved in it. The main success factors for airline industry include attracting the customers, managing fleet, managing people, and managing finances. 
   
Therefore, sustainable development has become a vital requirement for the businesses to incorporate in their policies. The airline industry can adopt certain measures that favor going green this will not only benefit the industry but also the environment and society as a whole.

It is always good to know that other sources of renewable energy are available for electricity production. Electricity is perhaps becoming a basic necessity in modern society and all of new technology requires electricity to work. Electricity is perhaps also one of the cheapest energy source available to man and new sources of electricity production, especially those that takes advantage of or does not affect the environment in a negative way, is always welcome. The research showing a great prospect for the use of sugarcane waste biomass for electricity production is great news for sustainable energy source while at the same time reduces the waste generated from sugarcane industry. Not only does the use of sugarcane reduce the amount of waste but would also decrease the amount of air pollution. According to the research, the use of sugarcane waste biomass could displace an equivalent of 230 kg of coal for the equivalent amount of energy generated and 560 kg of carbon dioxide per tonne (Inderscience, 2009).

Taking advantage of the suns energy to produce other forms of energy is always cheap and efficient. The sun generates more energy than anything on earth and that this energy is always free for everyone and produces no negative effects to the environment. Aside from solar panels which capture and convert solar energy into electrical energy, scientists have found new ways to take advantage of the suns energy to generate other forms of energy to used from day to day life. One of these new ways to take advantage of the suns energy is to mimic leaves in the process of photosynthesis, but this time in the creation of liquid fuel. This is great news since fossil fuel is not a sustainable source of energy and that it takes thousands of years to produce. While the report did not specify whether this form of fuel is more environment friendly than that of fossil fuels, fuel generated from the suns energy will be abundant and considerably be cheaper than processed fossil fuels. Other forms of energy are also discussed which takes advantage of and converts the suns energy into everyday use.

Issues of environmental concern have since emerged as crucial even to the environmental security of sovereign states. Most common among them are deforestation, proper management of wastes, soil erosion, conservation of the atmosphere (among them air pollution, depletion of the ozone layer) and preservation of natural resources as a whole. The International community has made efforts to enact international law to address environmental issues yet, the issue of sovereignty also comes to the fore as a challenge. Explicitly, these abovementioned issues if not taken seriously deprive the society of its health because livelihoods are placed in danger. This paper focuses on environmental security as a fundamental concern in the present-day, embedded in this are how these concerns are hazards to national environmental security.

CHAPTER 13
Benefits and Drawbacks of Recycling Wastes
One of the key benefits of waste recycling is that it reduces pressure on non renewable resources. In fact, this reduction in pressure is the main economic incentive in waste recycling and management. The process of recycling also prevents pollution and encourages a more responsible way of waste disposal. Some of the most common materials are like waste paper when it is recycled into useful paper, having bottle banks to collect used glass and smelting of scrap metals into useful metal. Recycling reduces the wastage of useful materials, conserves energy and conserves raw materials in the manufacturing process. Drawbacks of recycling lie in the very fact that paper can only be recycled a given number of times because the fibres weaken overtime and the collection methods and the recycling techniques are in certain cases complicated. Glass poses a challenge on the municipal programs in instances where the market for selling it becomes non-existent. Recycling glass and ferrous metals may not be cost-effective considering the fact that the end product may be of lower worth Vis a Vis the resources ploughed in the recycling process.
E-Wastes
    The term electronic wastes refers to loosely leftover, surplus, obsolete, or broken electronic and electrical equipment such as computers, mobile phones, stereos, fax machines just to mention but a few. These if not properly disposed can lead to serious pollution on the environment owing to the fact that they contain contaminating substances such as Lead, Beryllium and Cadmium.  Disposal methods of these wastes include re-use, being refurbished or better still recycling them in an environmentally friendly manner. Many states in America such as Illinois, Washington, Maine and Minnesota have devised means of increasing the rates of recycling this is by increasing the manufacturers costs of end of life treatments of electronic products. Another means of improving the recycling rates is by taking advantage of the precious metals available in these equipments for economic gain. These metals contribute up to 70 of all metal related in value in cell phones and calculators.
Bioremediation and Phytoremediation
Bioremediation is the process through which enzymes, fungi, green plants and micro organisms are used to restore the otherwise contaminated environment back to its original state. Phytoremediation and Bioremediation are the most common processes used to reduce contamination through dilution. This process can be instrumental in reversing the effects of soil contaminating agents such as chlorinated hydrocarbons by bacteria. Some advantages of these processes are in the clean up of oil spills by encouraging decomposition by means of bacteria. These processes are also much faster for cleaning up hydrophobic contaminants and are more affordable as compared to other methods they also utilize microbes or plants biological systems to reverse the effects of pollution instead of higher polluting mechanical systems.
Toxic Waste Disposal and Industry Responsibility in the Dumping Toxic Chemicals
The toxic waste disposal site proposed for the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota has been subject of debate for quite some time whereas some locals argue that this will be disadvantageous to the wellbeing and environmental health, some have argued that it will be a source of employment to the local population. New Mexico for instance released 94 million gallons of waste onto the Puerco River which is used by the Manuelito and Lupton tribes hence depriving them of their source of water. In my view therefore, since the waste disposal site poses danger to the locals (it has led to animal deformities and cancer-related deaths in the communities along the river), it is not a worthwhile venture. Against this background therefore, the waste disposal plan in South Dakota should not be supported on the grounds that it causes serious effects on the long term health of the communities in this area (Bruce, 2006).
    Wastes from Pharmaceutical companies, oil refineries, and petrochemical plants are just some of those that are hazardous to the health of the natives of South Dakota and therefore, are bound to have effects such as ailments, air pollution and general ill health of the natives. There should instead be organization at the grassroots levels and better methods that are more economically viable and environmental friendly.
    Human activity has greatly influenced the way rain water and snow melts, it carries down fertilizer, oil and industrial waste. In urban areas in South Dakota, industries have been notorious in polluting both the air and water resources despite the hazardous effects this has on the local population. This explains why the industry officials should be prosecuted owing to the fact that pollution is an environmental crime. American environmental laws advocate for the protecting and conservation of air and water (Fisher, 2004). Against this background therefore, the industry officials should have been aware of the effects at the point where there were adverse effects on both human and their livestock.
CHAPTER 14
Sustainable Development
    Sustainable development is a term used to describe the process by which resources can be used with an objective of conserving the environment for both present and future benefits while in the same stride meeting human needs. Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social challenges facing humanity.
Differences between Neoclassical and Ecological Economics with Regard to the Utilization Natural Resources
Neoclassical economics is used to describe economics with the prime focus on the determination of prices, outputs, and income distributions this is often through supply and demand forces. The forces being on macroeconomics, neoclassical economics consider that firms ought to employ factors of production. The bottom line in this theory is that the factors of production (land, labour and capital) or natural resources for that matter are utilized in order to maximize output. The market supply and demand for each factor of production is derived from the output requirement.
Ecological economics is the interrelationship between human house keeping and natures house keeping, this is about how economic and ecological systems interact. The economy is perceived as being a component of the environment in which there is a constant exchange of energy and matter. In this interaction, humans extract a number of matters from the environment -like timber and oil- and they give back to the environment in the form of sulphur oxide and carbon dioxide necessary for their living. It would therefore be impossible for humans to satisfy their needs without having to interact with the natural resources the economy and the environment are interdependent and what happens with the economic resources affects the economy.
Difference between Open Access and Communal Resource Management
Communal resource management is a communal property regime where communities would manage forests and other natural resources for their future benefits. These were ether applicable where the property rights had not been developed or property regimes were not codified. Open access property regimes are systems where there are natural resources which are costly and whose sizes or characteristics make it impossible to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its use. A good example is fishing grounds, pastures, forests, air and the atmosphere. A common pool resource typically refers to a core resource with limited extractable fringe units the core resource is often protected so as to guarantee continuous exploitation of the common resource.
Considerations for Assigning Value in a Cost Benefit Study
In a cost-benefit analysis, the cost of undertaking a project if often compared to the benefits of the same to study the viability of the project. Either the costs or the benefits outweigh the other. Some dynamics such as the opportunities for good health and the existence of rare and endangered species in a far away place are immeasurable and monetary value can not easily be accorded to such factors. In such a scenario therefore, one should assign the highest value to good health and conserving the rare and endangered species because if the result was negative, it would therefore be important to save such species or do our best to save the situation (Cunningham, 2007).
    There is an imminent danger in assuming that factors are immeasurable in a cost-benefit analysis, this is because in the present world, everything ought to have a monetary value assigned to it to determine what its worth. Analytically, the sole objective of organizations is to make profits and as a result, they would want to focus on what generates high returns other that what is not determinable in value. Therefore, there is a risk (financial or otherwise) in assuming that things are priceless.
Premises and Definitions Employed in the Justification for Sustainable Resource Management
When an ecologist argues that natural resources are irreplaceable, the underlying premise is that there is no possibility of substituting resources, the same argument that applies when animal species get extinct. The rationale behind this argument is straightforward, due to the economic pressure in the present day, exploitation of natural resources for economic gain is a continuous process and due to past occurrences, the void will not be filled by any means. Past events are used to predict the future in this case therefore an ecologist believes that no technology can be used to regain depleted natural resources.
    Economists on the other hand argue that that ingenuity and enterprise will find substitutes for most resources, the underlying premise is that much as human population has increased,  resources have kept pace with population growth such that, the earth can still support the growing population. The environment is very delicate and complicated to an extent that depletion of resources will be replaced in some way. Practical examples are through increasing soil fertility through the use of fertilizers, inventing other artificial resources to replace the natural resources and ensuring the environment can be sustainable (Cunningham, 1999).
Reasons behind the Ineffectiveness of International Conventions and Treaties
International Environmental Conventions and Treaties are often weak and can not adequately protect the environment for the very reason than most states want to protect their sovereignty. There therefore lacks a legal framework to enforce these provisions owing to the fact that there may be no collective responsibility and persecution for non compliance. Insofar as environmental problems do not exclude sovereign borders, leaders of various sovereign states still exploit their natural resources as they please. In any case the operating system of a state is incomparable with international laws on the environmental protection it therefore follows that international laws can not tackle environmental concerns in isolation.
International treaties can be effective if governments practise extensive cooperation in the realization that their states are equally at risk, this is by enacting international laws and enforcing them and being committed to them. Among other things, food, agricultural, environmental and industrial policies should be enacted by different countries that are effective if international environmental laws can be effective. Public awareness should be fostered promotion of participation programmes by the public and training the general public of the dangers of these pollutants, governments should also invest more on environmental research.
The National Environmental Educational Act which first became law in 1970 and the Department of Education are primarily concerned about developing environmental education curricula and providing professional development for teachers. The congress has tried time and again to increase the role of the various states in this department U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has continued to receive financial support by means of appropriation bills. Increasing Public awareness on environmental issues has been of central focus through this, environmental sciences have been promoted two of which are offered by the University of Rhode Island.
Citizen Science
Citizen science is the incorporation of citizens in the planning process, data collection or the analyzing process of scientific project, this normally has benefits for both the communities and the organizations involved. Such outfits therefore cut down on resource costs, provides an understanding to the citizen scientists for them to educate other citizens and building trust between citizens, conservation organizations and citizens. Overtime, citizen science projects have led to a profound understanding of the projects on the ground and natural resource management issues.
The Wildlands CPRs project is one of such important projects with sole objectives of removing roads from water cut-off points-studying the effects in the short and long run- and increasing the communitys understanding of the importance of restoring watersheds. In the first year of its incorporation, the citizen scientists collected data on road removal, contracted the services of a wildlife biologist to research on the wildlife protocols. Vegetation samples have been taken to identify hazardous weed problems and so has stream sediment been measured to establish stream integrity.
CHAPTER 15
Environmental Protection
Environmental protection is the practise of protection the environment either as organizations, individuals or as the government. Environmental protection can however be excessive in some cases this is where conservation, say of land, deprives citizens from rights of erecting buildings in certain places thereby reducing the tax base. This is based on the fact that income becomes low due to some protective regulations resources can no longer be exploited.
    The United States refinery industry is one of the outfits affected and or oppressed by government regulations on the environment, this is owing to the fact that they incur costs of up to four hundred and fifty dollars yearly in compliance with these government regulations. The Environmental Protection Agency has strict enforcement plans of a program against the explosive nature of gasoline used by these industries. In principle, the government requires these refinery industries to reduce the use of gasoline to an extent of nine pounds per every square inch under the Reid vapour pressure system of measurement. This therefore poses superfluous costs which have to be incurred by the stakeholders of such companies.
    Environmental protection can be justified based on the premises that amounts of concentrated chemicals from industries and other pollutants contaminate the waterways and this causes the death of wildlife and ailments for human beings. Fresh water, air and basically unpolluted natural resources ensure that what is consumed into the human body is healthy. Environmental protection regulations ensure that greenhouse gas emissions are minimized and so pollution of the atmosphere is subsequently reduced, this has a counter effect on the dangers of global climate rise (Bruce, 2006). The environment also provides a form of livelihood for wildlife and human beings, the ecosystem provides shelter for wildlife. Natural resources ought to be conserved for the very reason that human needs are both for the present and the future.
Justifying the Argument that a Small Number of Individuals Can Change the World
Margaret Mead argued that a small group of committed individuals is what is needed to change the world, by this she meant that each one of us can change the world if we organize and focus our energies. Insofar as a large group can have a huge impact on a worthy cause, a small group can still be useful in the absence of a big group and for that reason there is no explanation for inaction (Lutkehaus, 2008). Particular individuals or groups of people who made history in the world begun with a particular change in conscience and took a stand. Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, Rosa Parks, Abraham Lincoln, Mother Theresa and Nancy Goodman Brinker (Susan G. Komen Foundations) are just some examples of people who tried to change the world.
    The shift in conscience once pioneered by an individual therefore spread to the rest of other like minded people and this is how the process of change begins. The process of change needs individuals who are visionary, energetic, and wise for any tangible difference to be achieved in the society (Mead, 2005). Entrepreneurs in scores of fields drive change that begins at an individual level, implements it by the assistance of a few committed individuals and thought communication, the process of transformation is instigated.

Crop pesticides are substances used for controlling or destroying the unwanted and usually harmful plants (weeds) or animal pests that hamper the growth, the processing or the storage of the crops. They also refer to the substances that regulate the growth of the plants (for instance the fruits), defoliants, desiccants or the substances that are applied to the harvested crops to prevent the deterioration of such crops once stored or when transporting them. (FAO 6)
While the pests have remained a nuisance to the farmers, the question of whether the farmers should use crop pesticides or other organic means of pest control has been a subject of protracted debate. Crop pesticides contain various tough and carcinogenic chemicals that are very effective in destroying the pests. On the other hand the chemicals contained in the pesticides are harmful to the health of the farmers as well as that of the consumers. There should be a trade off between the pesticides and the other pest control methods. Thesis statement An Integrated Pest Management (IPM) technique should be applied in which all the available pest control methods should be integrated and reasonable amounts of crop pesticides should be applied subject to strict control and regulation by the California Department of Pesticide Regulation (CDPR).
For many years, California has been dependent on the crop pesticides to control the various pests that infest the crops. California passed the first legislation to regulate the pesticide use in 1901, but since then, various laws have been enacted. The California Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR) is the body that regulates the sale and use of pesticides by evaluating the pesticides, ensuring they are registered, licensing the dealers and carrying out tests on the final produce to ensure the pesticides do not leave harmful substances on the produce.
 During the early years of pesticide use, the aim of regulation was to protect the consumers from fraudulent dealers but the concern about their negative environmental effects was not a major concern. However, in 1927, a law was passed to control the levels of arsenic-based sprays on the horticultural crops. After the Second World War, farming methods were improved and the use of pesticides became very rampant. The farmers used the pesticides with limited knowledge of the harmful effects and as a result, they destroyed the wanted crops and the increased levels of toxic substances killed the growers livestock and bees. The farmers too were injured by these pesticides.
An author by the name Rachel Carson wrote a publication in 1962 that strongly criticized the manner in which the pesticides were used without any concern for their negative impacts on the users and consumers health or the environment. This publication, which was known as the Silent Spring, raised some awareness and ignited a debate on the environmental conservation. There were increased concerns about the airborne toxins, the chronic health implications of the pesticides and the effects of the pesticides in ground water which led to the passing of various laws to address these concerns. In particular, the law required a research to be conducted to give details of the specific properties of pesticides that lead to contamination of water. To consolidate these regulations into one body, the DPR was established in 1991 to regulate the use of pesticides in crops and on animals, in soil and in water. (California Environmental Protection Agency)
The use of pesticides has always been an issue of controversy. The proponents of the use of pesticides argue that with the growth in population, the pesticides help in boosting the food production so as to ensure food security while the opponents of pesticides argue that the negative effects of these pesticides overwhelm the benefits derived from them. The farmers, who have to make decisions regarding whether or not to use the pesticides, are usually left confused by this raging debate. Therefore, an in depth analysis of the pros and cons of pesticide use could help them make informed decisions when adopting the Integrated Pest management technique.
Pesticide use results to several negative health and environmental effects. The workers in the farms get into contact with the pesticides when mixing, applying and handling the sprayed crops as well as the harvests. In his book, Pesticides a toxic time bomb in our midst, Levine Marvin J. (2007), observes that out of the 25 most commonly used pesticides, five are harmful to the central nervous system, eighteen of them are harmful to the lungs as well as the eyes, eleven are responsible for cancerous growth of cells, seven disorders the genetics and ten lead to reproductive health complications. The above figures are indicative of the fact that each pesticide will have more than one harmful effect in the human body.
The workers in the farms are required to protect themselves by spraying the crops on less windy days, wearing protective gear while in the fields and complying with the rules regarding the reentry duration. The re entry days is the minimum period that the workers should keep off the fields after the crops have been sprayed. However, in some instances, the workers ignore the re entry days required thus exposing themselves to the chemicals. A case in point is that of the Fresno County incident which Levine Marvin J narrates
In California, suspected pesticide related illnesses and suspected work-related illnesses and injuries are reportable conditions. On July 31, 1998, the Occupational Health Branch of the California Department of Health Services (CDHS) received a report from the California Department of Pesticide Regulation (CDPR) of a pesticide exposure incident in Fresno County involving thirty four farm workers, both adults and minors. The findings indicated that the workers became ill after early reentry into a cotton field that had been sprayed with three pesticides. (34)
These negative effects on the health come from the direct contact with the pesticide itself or as a result of living in a polluted environment. The pesticides lead to pollution of the water, soil degradation and air pollution. How a particular pesticide affects the environment depends on the chemical and physical characteristics of the particular pesticide. For instance, some pesticides evaporate back to the atmosphere causing air pollution. Other pesticides are washed by the rain and they flow to the rivers and dams causing water pollution.
Some of the pesticides alter the acidity or alkalinity of the soils rendering them unfit for cultivation. Persistent use of pesticides could also lead to pest resistance, a situation in which the weeds or pests develop their own fighting mechanism to counter the chemicals in the pesticides. Reports indicate that the negative effects are not only felt by the workers in the farms, but also the people who are far away from the farms through the environmental pollution. Over 90 of the pesticides applied in California drift away from the fields. (Levine 195)
Notwithstanding the negative impacts of the pesticides, they continue to be used by the crop farmers even today. The pesticides are considered as the fastest, most effective and economical method of pest control. The speed with which the pesticides destroy the pests is very high compared to the rest of the methods. In large scale cotton farming as happens in California, the pesticides are sprayed in the fields and within a few days, the pests are eliminated. Such pests could take many months to destroy if labor intensive cultural methods are applied. This reduces the costs of managing the fields, which translates to low cost of clothing and fresh produce.
Researchers have developed some form of very sophisticated pesticides that control the growth of the plants. Pesticides can be used to boost the important area of the plant. For instance, they prevent the fruits and flowers from falling prematurely or they can improve the quality of the leaves. The pesticides are used to protect the farm produce against the pests once they are harvested. These preservatives helps increase food security especially when the population increases. Large scale farming can never be economically carried out unless the pesticides are used. Moreover, the companies that manufacture crop pesticides offer employment opportunities people and raise revenues, in form of taxes, to the government.
Since the benefits of pesticide use as well as the social costs are relatively high, a choice has to be made by the farmers and other stakeholders regarding the best method to apply. Other than the pesticides, the other methods of pest control are Classical biological control, use of mechanical methods, cultivation and use of more resistant varieties of crops. The biological control involves the use of natural enemies to the pests while the mechanical methods include the physical destruction of the pests.
However, just like the pesticides, none of these methods is exclusively economical and effective in pest control. The best technique towards the control of the pests should be to use the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) technique which will incorporate all the pest control methods. IPM is an ecological method that provides long term solution to pest management while ensuring that the environmental impacts are reduced. The Integrated Pest Management technique proposes that the farmers should take measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified (FAO 6)
Under the IPM, the decisions taken while controlling pests should depend on the history of the pest, the nature of the plant, the weather conditions, and any other information that may help the farmers to make decisions that are environmental friendly. Sometimes the use of pesticides is not necessary and when used, the timing is more accurately done depending on the weather conditions. Fewer pesticides are used under this technique and the risks related to pesticide use are minimized. (Marer 60)
Although the IPM method permits reduced use of pesticides, the crop growers should always use the only pesticides that meet the requirements of California Department of Pesticide Regulation (CDPR). They should always buy the pesticides that are certified by this regulatory authority.
In the light of the foregoing discussions, it is important that the growers of cotton and other farm produce in California clearly understand the health and environmental implications of pesticide use. They should be educated on the Integrated Pest Management technique which is more effective, economical and reduces harmful environmental effects.

Love canal today

The modern love canal is marked with only few residents. It is only an estimated 10 percent of the original residents who have opted to remain with most of the others selling their properties. It is however to be realized that even those remaining are willing to relocate to other safer areas. Still to be stated here is the fact that the region has been fenced with barbed wire to ensure the safety of the residents. The process of unearthing the toxic chemicals from the region is still going on under the custodianship of the Love Canal Area Revitalization Agency (LCARA) (Brook, 2006). It is however to be recognized that restoring the public confidence of love canal safety will not be a simple act by the government of America following the eminent health risks that were witnessed by the residents.

In year 1876 William Grylls contributed greatly to the coining of the term photovoltaic effect. And through this effect was borne solar energy. Actually in photovoltaic effect, light ignites an electric current (the flow of electrons) through a semi-conductor material-as opposed to a pure conductor such as copper as is the case with other conventional forms of energy. The most efficient semi-conductor in use today in PV system is silicon which has since replaced the inefficient selenium.
The process of solar energy production is quite simple. When sunlight strikes the cell, photons from the light are absorbed by the semiconductor atoms infused with boron and phosphorus-one layer is positive while the other layer is negative for flow of electrons from one charge to the other- which then unleash electrons. These electrons flow in one direction and are thus described as direct current (DC). It is a device known as inverter that is responsible for the ultimate conversion of this form of current to alternating current (AC) that is easily used at home
 Solar energy, as alluded to above, is thus produced in a configuration of individual cells that are laminated between transparent supersrtsrate and an encapsulating substrate that provides mechanical integrity. This configuration of individual cells is known as modules.  A panel is a combination of modules.
A typical module has a lot of efficiencies. Modules need no high temperatures, they do not need combustion of raw materials and hence their clean energy infrastructure, they require no moving parts, and they have no emissions of any kind. For that matter solar energy happens to be one of the cleanest and most reliable alternative energy sources. These efficiencies have significance on the implications of PV systems growth in the United States of America. As a result of these efficiencies PV system is going to experience tremendous growth in the coming years More so because of its safety to the environment.
However, modules are not as effective as they are safe to the environment. In fact it is impossible to attain 100 efficiency due to the very configuration of the module itself, and other factors. Therefore theoretical limitations to 100 efficient module include the fact that solar module can only convert about 22 of the energy to electricity, that our utility transmission was designed based on central-station distribution of power along transmission systems, and that we are yet to develop large capacity storage systems like batteries and fuel cells so that we can convert excess PV created during the day for use at night.
There are a lot of factors and drivers that encourage the growth of photovoltaic system in the US today. The factors in most cases are environmental while the drivers are by and large government initiatives. The high dependency on fossil fuels that is not only declining in volume but also creating a climate crisis that is global warming was a major boost for countries such as Germany and Japan to go the PV system way. And so is the case with the US.Other factors include blackouts and grid instability, state incentives, carbon taxes, constant sunshine availability and many others. However, it has to be noted that Americans would only consider a type of energy source viable if there are resourceful ways of obtaining it.
Four pillars are of extreme importance if we are to achieve anything with PV system. And there definition is as well imperative. These pillars include incentives, interconnection standards, net metering standards and utility rates and revenue policies. Incentives is the policy that involves the provision of niceties to users of PV energy or mitigation assistance to heavily subsidies kWh by the government in particular. This has been the main force behind Californias improved PV system.
An interconnection standard is the process of interconnecting the PV system to grid. There are two types of PV system connection, a stand-alone in which the system is not tied to any grid and grid-tier connection in which the PV is connected to a grid controlled by a utility. The utilities should make the latter painless and standardized across utility boundaries. At my home we have utilized this pillar and it is beneficial as we have hardly experienced blackouts.
Net metering is another pillar and it means that one can sell excess power back to the utility company. Utilities must also offer rate that support PV and value its distributed nature and ability to shave off peak use. This is known as utility rates revenue policies and is the pillar number four.
If this pillars are well taken into account we can achieve a  PV efficiency of 30 as is in 10 years time as is projected.