Environmental Issues

The industrialization processes and development of human knowledge has most significantly changed the prospects of man for both better and worse. At one hand, humans have achieved massive development, economic productivity, rapid technological increases and of course, the linkages of the entire world through vast transportation networks.

However, with the massive development in the global sphere undertaken by man, has no doubt, come at a very heavy price of the environment. Man, having consumed most of the natural resources available in the world, has at the same time, left by products in the form of pollution in his pursuit towards higher industrial development.

The recent attention given to the global environment and the stress on decreasing mans carbon footprint has been provoked by the massive amounts of pollution that man has created in this world. This very pollution has led to massive changes in the earths eco systems.

This paper seeks to explain the cause of oil disasters that occur across oceans and water channels. Starting out with a description of oil spills, the paper hopes to develop cause relationships as to why oil leaks into the ocean. Both factors of natural causes and oil spills will be examined and their effects on the environment will be discussed in detail. The conclusion of the paper will signify the difficult task of cleaning operations that follow an oil spill, introducing the latest technology and procedures developed. To highlight the important of such spillages, the paper will also discuss recommendations, precautions and safety procedures that cans be followed to minimize the effects of oil spills, if not curtail them entirely.

Oil spills
Oil pollution is one such form of the pollution left by mankind on the face of this planet. Since transportation is a key fundamental in the development of economics, industries and anything else that generates income for the masses, oil becomes the fundamental resource required to power industries. The need for energy, power and working machinery require oil as a necessary resource. Thus, oil is often termed as liquid gold.

The key lies in the distribution of oil and its transportation. Since oil is required across the globe, its transportation follows a global pattern as well. Shipped across various countries around the world, oil is one of the most heavily transported natural resource in the world. At the same time, it is one of the root causes of the massive pollution outbreak in the 21st century.

Because of the uneven distribution of oil across various continents, it becomes pertinent to connect these countries to those in need of oil through the ocean. Thus, the use of oil vessels and transportation channels developed through the ocean are used.  Thus, with any transportation system, an expectation in accidents is not abnormal and is a likely occurrence. Thus, oil spills exists and occur across the globe as history has shown.

The use and production of oil has jumped from 500 million tons in the 1950s to 2.5 billion tons in the late 1990s.  This massive growth in the oil industry has led to a direct increase in transportation systems and the volume of oil shipped across sea.  With oil accounting for more than half of the total volume of sea cargo, it is easy to understand why oil spills have gained massive media recognition. The number of oil spills has no doubt increased, but that is because the volume of transport, number of transporters and the sizes they come in have drastically increased with the booming industry.
History of oil spills

Over the years, various oil spills have been registered as some of the most devastating moments in the Earth environmental history. Though contradiction over the claims exist, it is generally held that oil spills in the ocean causes by transportation vessels are the main causes of pollutants of oil spills. Not only are they far worse than other causes, but hold a greater percentage of incidents ever caused.
Though oil spills through the use of tankers and transportation vessels are responsible for 70 of the latest deadly environmental attacks in recent years, it is important to understand that they are not the only source of environmental damage done by oil spills. According to sources, 363 gallons of oil per year are doused into the drains through general use. This oil, used in various cities and other activities is eventually washed up into the oceans and seas. Similarly, 137 million gallons of oil are left into the ocean due to routine maintenance operations in which ships, and other such factors release oil into seaways during their normal course of business and operations.  92 million gallons are evaporated in the air in the form of air pollutions, where as it is oil that is causing the damage in itself. Eventually this is washed up into the oceans as settlements of particles are washed into the sea through rain. Beyond that, even offshore drilling causes an effect of 15 million gallons per year that is washed into the ocean.

Even so, it is important to consider some of the most devastating effects of oil tankers leaking oil into the ocean. One of the most pertinent to mention is that of Amoco Cadiz. This one tanker alone caused a spill of over 68 million gallons into the sea. Due to bad weather, the tanker split and leaked oil across the Coast of Brittany, France in 1978.

Another incident involved Iraq destroying tankers, oil terminals and other such equipment during their war against Kuwait in 1991. This was the largest oil spill in the history of the world with more than 0.9 billion gallons of oil leaking into the ocean

In 1979, the Burmah Agate collided with another ship in the Gulf of Mexico causing a massive fire to implode due to an oil spill. The fire raged for over 2 months, and approximately 3 million gallons of oil had been showered upon the environment been in form of sea pollution and air pollution. To keep the fire burning, it is said that approximately 7.8 million tons of oil had been used resulting in the total amount of pollution caused to spiral higher than the basic numeric measurements.

The largest spill in the United States was that of the Exxon Vladez, part of the Exxon Shipping Company. Having transgressed the normal shipping lane due to ice patches along the arctic, the tanker unleashed 10.8 million gallons into the sea after a collision with uneven surface of the sea. The effects were so devastation that it is said that 1100 miles of the Alaskan Coastline were effected, making it the largest spill in the history of the United States.

Another important incident, often cited as the second most disastrous spill in world History, was that of Ixtoc-I. This was an exploratory well near Mexico which blew up in 1979. The disaster occurred in June, and to contain the well lasted well into March, 1980. An estimated 140 million gallons of oil was lost to sea and devastated the entire Bay of Campeche.

Types of Oil
Oil properties are important to understand because they are the determinants on the amount of pollution they will disperse in the environment. Because of the varying nature of oil compounds and their compositions, it is important to consider the properties which make oil what it is and then try to understand how it will affect the environment.

First of all, the types of oil have to be examined before the characteristics can be examined. There are two basic types of oil which can be divided into categories of light and heavy. This has been based on research by scientists and the broadly accepted way of categorization by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Lighter oils are generally categorized as diesel oil or gas. They have properties of evaporating far more quickly but are extremely flammable and are also highly toxic. Generally, in the event of oil spills which consist of these categories of oil, the damages are done when fumes are inhaled, or living things come into contact with this oil. Also, being highly flammable, there is a high probability of a threat of massive fires if they ignite.

Heavier oils on the other hand consist of fuel drivers for engines, especially transportation vessels and heavy duty machinery. Though these oils are not that toxic as are light oils, they have a tendency to remain in the atmosphere and environment for a much longer time. Unlike lighter oils, they affect plants and animals by smothering them. They have a property of hardening as they reach the shore or come into contact with dry environment. Because of this, not only are their effects long lasting but also difficult to clean.

Characteristics of Oil in relation to spill properties
Before building upon the case of effects on the environment, it is pertinent to understand how oil spills occur and what determines their level of hazard to the environment. Since oils are of different categories, they spill differently as well. Generally though, oil spills in the form of a spread. This spread occurs when oil spreads horizontally across the ocean forming a thick slick over the ocean surface. How far this slick spreads and its repercussions on the environment are determined by three specific factors

Surface tension- this property describes the tension between the surface of the water and the oil molecules. Based on this, the higher the surface tension between the oil and ocean surface, the greater the chance that the oil spill will remain in one place. This can be changed due to the climatic differences in the global atmosphere. For instance, since warmer areas decrease the surface tension, oil spills will spread far more into the ocean in warmer water areas of the world.

Viscosity- this is the resistance properties of a liquid to that of flow. To explain these phenomena, we must observe the properties of honey. Honey is one liquid which is very viscous in nature. Thus, it stays in one place, as would highly viscous oil do, in the event of an oil spill.

Specific gravity- this is the comparison between the density of water and that of the substance (oil in this case). Heavier oils tend to sink and create balls of tar towards the bottom of the ocean. Lighter oils tend to evaporate into the atmosphere.

Effects on the environment
The effects of oil based substances on the environment are quite disastrous. Not only do oil spills affect marine life and ocean stability, but at the same time hurt the wild life and environment on the shore. This part of the paper examines some of the habitats and ecosystems destroyed or devastated by oil spills.

Aquatic Habitats
When considering the effects on the aquatic wildlife, it is important to consider two factors where they reside and what their place in the food chain is. Depending on which area in the ocean they reside, whether they are deep water animals, or they live near the shore, will determine the extent of damage to their habitat. If they are highly placed in the food chain, the ecosystem might not be that disruptive but the lower they are, the more animals will be affected by the oil spill.

The first aspect to consider is that of coral reefs. These reefs are near to the shoreline and are a habitat for various breeding animals such as shrimps, fish and provide recreational activities for human beings. In the course of an oil spill, these reefs can either be destroyed completely due to the poisonous nature of the oil spill, or become smothered by the oil itself, leading to eventual destruction. When these coral reefs are destroyed, the animals that would breed in that area are left with no habitat to reproduce, affecting the entire ecosystem.

Second, when regarding the direct shoreline, there are many animals that live, breed and habitat on the shoreline itself. If the shoreline becomes polluted, their habitat is lost and they eventually die due to lack of food and shelter. However, the risk is lesser in this regard since very few animals live in this form of habitat for long periods of time. The only problem is that when it comes to beaches or shorelines, tidal wave activity is very low. Thus, repair work has to begin immediately, or the oil will be absorbed by the sand leading to long term continuous damage. Tidal flats, consisting of vegetation and animal life together, are areas near low tide zones. If the water seeps into the muddy patches at the bottom of such areas, they destroy the ecosystem with time as well.

Mangrove forests are located near the sea shore of various tropical countries. In the event of an oil spill near this area, the mangrove forests, which are extremely important breeding grounds for various animals, and home to plant diversity and animal life as well, will eventually fade away. The importance of mangroves to the world climate is also well known thus their existence is fundamental to human life itself. In the event of an oil spill, the long roots of the mangrove trees, which are responsible, not only for the trees growth put also to keep it in place, are damaged and covered with oil. In such cases, the tree eventually dies and replacement becomes very difficult because to grow back a mangrove tree takes a lot of time, often cited as decades.

Marine animals that are affected include the Sea Otters. These animals end up being covered in oil which reduces the air flow from the coats of their fur or body. The air bubbles that these animals produce are a natural way of protecting themselves from cold environments and helping them stay afloat. With time, they eventually die.

Whales are at risk of oil spill effects as well. It is understandable that whatever the whale takes in is almost always released through the blow hole. Given in a scenario, the whale, while taking in water to feed, consumes oil, their blow holes will eventually be ridden with oil particles, blocking the main blow hole. Since this is their primary method of breathing as well, they eventually suffer death in the long run. Even if the blow hole is not covered, there are chances that consuming the oil along with the fish will lead to poisoning of the whale.

Even when we consider flora and fauna, we can see clearly that the entire process of photosynthesis can be destroyed if oil covers the top layers of plants. With time, the amount of flora and fauna will decrease and die out. This leads to a direct destruction of the food chain because animals that feed on the basics of the ocean cannot survive to feed the ones higher in the food chain.

Whether it is through ingestion, contact, or interaction with the oil, sea animals and plant life are at high risks. There is a resounding amount of evidence proving that oil spills cause many of the animals, especially invertebrates choke. Beyond this fact, it also alters their development, growth and metabolic rates which in turn end up affecting the entire eco system present in the ocean. Even when it comes to human beings, if these animals are ingested by them, they are at risk of severe damage to their own humanly body systems, especially the lungs, kidneys and liver.

Birds and Mammals
The following are some of the ways that birds and mammals can be affected by oil spills
Direct Contact
Toxicities
Destruction of habitats

Reproductive destruction
When birds and animals come into contact with oil, their feathers are affected by the oil directly. They are not only matted down but are severely damaged as well. This in eventuality leads to birds and mammals losing their insulating abilities that their fur coats provided them. They then freeze in colder waters or environments. Most birds become incapable of flying and thus they lose their competitive edge in the environment, more susceptible to be prey.

The toxic nature of oil itself is a source of concern. Inhaling vapors and ingesting oil can lead to serious consequences not only for birds and mammals but also for human beings. Inhaling vapors causes many animals to directly hurt their central nervous system. Ingestion causes severe damage to their reproductive abilities, growth and development and their internal organs which are severely damaged. These animals eventually die.

Another important consequence in event of an oil spill is that of the effects on the natural habitat and the surrounding ecosystem. The food chain is directly affected if some animals become infected with the oil through ingestion. Their predators too will eventually become infected as they consume the tainted animals. If food habitats are destroyed, many animals will eventually die, affecting the entire food chain itself.

Even future generations of animals are affected as shell development and hatching eggs are severely damaged by oil spills. Eggs are sealed by the oil and the smothering causes the exchange of gas between the egg and the environment to be cut off. This in turn, leaves the eggs to die and future breeding to diminish.

Cleaning oil spills
Once the damage has been done, there is no way to entirely remove the effects of an oil spill. Only time and determination can minimize the effects to a certain degree. But the damage to the ecosystem and the environment itself will have been done either way. There are two ways oil spills are cleared up Natural ways and human technological use. This part of the paper discusses both and hopes to shed light on new technologies being used by human beings to control the detrimental effects of oil spills.

Natural methods
It is widely accepted that oil spills through tankers are not the main source of oil contamination in the ocean. In fact, the majority of oil contamination that takes place in the oceans is due to routine engine use. The oil that seeps into the rivers and oceans through our daily use of oil related machinery. It is said that 363 million gallons of used engine oil from industries and cities end up contaminating water supplies in the oceans and rivers, per year. But even so, the natural processes do not let us feel the effects that much, as those that are visible by the oil spills made by vessels.

Some of the methods used by Mother Nature are
Weathering
Evaporation
Oxidation
Biodegradation

The natural process of weathering breaks down the oil with time. These are considered as a series of natural and biological processes that occur in the ecosystem of the earth. Through this, the oil is broken down and dispersed across the ocean. Since the chemical processes make the oil heavier than water, the oil often sinks. Also, tidal waves disperse the oil as well.

Lighter oils are subject to evaporation. Almost immediately after an oil spill, the earths environment causes the lighter particles of oil to evaporate leaving only the heavier particles which are broken down further through chemical processes and then sink to the bottom of the sea bed.

Often, due to oxidation, the oil is compounded through chemical processes making it more water soluble.  However, this process affects the oil spills towards the edges of the slick.

Bio-degeneration occurs in warmer climates of the world. Bacteria and microorganisms feed on the oil hydrocarbons, breaking it down and reducing the quantity of the spill. However, in such scenarios a large number of microorganisms are needed and thus human influences are often used to speed up the process. With the addition of nitrogen and phosphorous, microorganism reproductive rates are increased, directly affecting the number of microorganisms in the area. The more the better it is for the reduction of oil spills.

Manmade cleaning processes
Oil spills and their nature of cleaning varies based on the climate, nature of disaster, type of oil in use and the situation unfolding at the time. However, even so, various international organizations such as the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have devised certain set factors and rules towards cleaning up oil spills. They include a general response system which is followed in almost every oil spill crisis.

Various ways are employed by disaster recovery procedures, some of which are as follows

Mechanical containment
Using various equipments such as booms, skimmers and sorbent materials, oil is properly composed and captured before it leaks and affects more surrounding environment.

ChemicalBiological adjustments
Dispersing agents and other chemicals are employed to contain oil dispersants into other regions. Generally, using chemicals to either help with the evaporation process or solubility of the oil are used.

Physical methodology
Using physical procedures such as hand washing, pressure hoses and bulldozing can help speed up the natural healing process of the environment. Since naturally occurring cleansing processes take years, man uses machinery and physical intervention to speed up the process.

Keeping animals at bay
Using scare tactics, environmentalists use methods to ensure that animals and wild life stay away from the contaminated area. This is more of prevention than cleaning but ensures that the danger of the oil spill is contained. Using scare crows which include floating dummies and sound enhances to scare away wild life, especially birds, environmentalist and the cleaning crew can ensure that the damage does not extend beyond a certain degree.

The generally accepted practice includes the use of the following

Booms
Skimmers
Chemical Dispersants
In-Situ burning

Booms are basically methods of containment after an oil spill has incurred. To prevent the oil, which is insoluble in water and rises above it, from reaching shorelines, booms are used to channel the oil in a specific direction, or contain it in a particular area.  Booms are often defined as flotation devises which help contain the disaster of the oil spill.  Though a valuable resource in containing oil spills, booms have an inherent disadvantage that they become less effective as the tidal flow increases. Thus the higher the waves, the less effective booms will become.

Skimmers are devices that work alongside booms. Once booms have contained the oil spills, skimmers are used to recover the oil that has been spilt. Weir skimmers are used to create small artificial dams to drop oil into containment storage. This is later pumped out using hoses or other equipment. However, the problem with this technique is that it is not entirely sustainable for long periods. This is principally because with time, the skimmers become clogged due to both the oil and the debris present in the ocean. Other forms of skimmers include attracting skimmers which use different materials to pick up the oil from the ocean surface. The particular advantage of this technique is that it can work around the debris present in the environment. Finally, suction skinners are used as vacuum cleaners to clean the ocean. These are the best way to clean oil collected through a boom. However, they too run the risk of clogging.

Often, when the oil spills are of the nature requiring authorities to break them down into smaller particles, dispersants are used. These are materials with chemical properties that break down petroleum or other oil based products into basic compounds that are easier to clean, or are less harmful to the environment.  By providing nature with the initial screening, wave flows and sea energies disperse the oil particles into streams and different areas, thus providing a less harmful environment in the oceanic sphere. At the same time, it becomes less likely that such strong oil currents, with harmful slicks and heavy oil streams will reach the shoreline, providing a safe environment on the beaches as well. These are most useful in warmer climates and are generally used when the initial layer of the oil, which contains lighter compounds have evaporated. These cannot be used in fresh water due to environmental regulations but in times of need, they are.

Finally, in-situ techniques involve burning the oil when it is freshly spilled. Through this, most of the oil is used up due to the combustion properties and pollution in the ocean is decreased. However, the down side is that the pollution that does not affect the sea ends up resulting in air pollution, which in turn can lead to severe acid rain in the region.

Cleaning animals and beaches

When it comes to beaches, the most used methods include using vacuum pumps, high pressure hoses and construction machinery.  When cleaning beaches, it is important to consider weather and the human life that exists around it. Generally, as the oil covers the beaches, the first step is to clean the heavy materials through heavy pressure hosing. Pressurized water is used to clean rocks and shores for particles of oil. After this and in some circumstances, alongside hosing techniques, vacuum cleaning is performed. Oil particles, tiny and large are both cleaned off using heavy suction pumps which suck in the oil that cannot be dispersed or is in inaccessible areas. Finally, construction equipment is used to either bulldoze areas heavily contaminated or clean areas which cannot be approached with any of the above mentioned apparatus.

To clean animals, various centers are set up which provide cleaning services. First, the oil is washed off from their bodies using the latest techniques and equipment. The areas which are heavily treated are the eyes and the intestines because they lead to the most destructive affects in animals, if not cleaned properly.  Second, the animals are treated for body injuries such as broken bones and other such incidences. Third, they are given medicine which creates a film around their stomachs which help the animals digest and prevent more oil entering into their bodies.

Prevention
Based on the destructive nature of oil spills, many governments, and international organizations have placed rules and regulations governing the transportation of oil. The hope is to prevent such catastrophes by heavily penalizing, and creating hype about the repercussions involved.

One requirement of most international countries is that of emergency response plans. Authorities need to know if the companies operating in their waters are ecologically sound. They must know what they must do in case of a disaster to minimize the damage as far as possible. At the same time, enforcing this law ensures that companies know their environmental responsibilities and are more prepared to handle them.  These plans outline the procedures that the company involved in the transportation of oil will follow in the case of an accident. Based on these plans, they are allowed to enter international waters of different countries.

The United States has taken this a step further by implementation of a law that enforces all ships entering with oil cargoes to have a double hull. Double hulls are safer for the environment, though very expensive to build. They ensure that if the initial hull is cracked, minimum or no level of oil will disperse into the environment because the second hull will prevent it from leaving. This policy is set to take affect by 2015.  They have even set out laws that penalize oil traders 1,200 for every ton they spill into the ocean and are currently in the process of developing spill funds which collect money from oil traders throughout the year. The hope of the project is to meet cleaning costs in the eventuality of an accident that occurs.

The costs of oil spills on the environment are hazardous. Now, monetarily speaking, the effects are hazardous too. The issue cannot be the stopping of oil transportation because it is the blood of the economies working around the globe. However, now the emphasis has been on prevention to insure oil spills do not occur, and if they do, they cause the least amount of damage.  Laws such as the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 have been enacted to ensure that companies are more conscious of their environment and that oil spills do not occur. The threats are obvious, as discussed by the paper. Though those are the detailed effects, it is clear that oil spills can be sparked into a fire very easily and can further cause damage to the air. Sinking towards the bottom of the ocean can damage ecosystems. Even rain formed after an oil spill can be acidic in nature and can further destroy the environment. Thus, currently firms and governments are employing their resources under the strategy of prevention is better than cure, because there is no set cure for oil spills. Damage to the environment will always exist in an oil spill no matter how latest the use of technology, resources and man power may be.