Environmental Issues

Land use planning has evolved gradually over the years and this has contributed to formulation and implementation of new planning strategies. These strategies are now putting into consideration of economical, social, cultural and environmental factors. It is in this regard that open spaces have become significant and more often than not necessitated the development of function oriented planning. In a bid to fully understand the approaches and models used in open space planning various research studies have been executed providing ample evidence into their uses and effectiveness. Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) showcase a comparative study of such open space planning approaches and models. This paper provides an extensive critique of this study with the aim of assessing the studys function in contributing to land use planning literature.

Amit-Cohen and Maruani (20072) aim at showcasing that approaches and models for open space planning emerge from distinct characteristics of open spaces as a form of land use. As such, they detail characteristics of open spaces as being of low level interventions, dominated by natural environments and which function under the characteristics of provision of services and conservation of natural value. These characteristics are integral in the analysis of the models and approaches used in the comparative study. Demand approaches to open space planning are said to focus on the public demands for recreation, amenities among others and are applied in such models as opportunistic, space standards, park systems and garden cities. On the other hand, supply approaches to open spaces planning focus mainly on the conservation of high quality natural, landscape values and other spatial attributed of the environment are applied in the ecological determinism and landscape models. Considering the desired intent of this study, the research findings have been intricately deduced and conclusions matched these objectives. In overall examination, this research study has achieved a positive outcome and will be instrumental in understanding open space planning approaches and models.

Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) acknowledges the importance of open space planning and their integral role in the conservation of the environment. In addition, they serve the human population in providing recreation services which are ideally necessary for healthy living. Furthermore, as Thompson (200261) concurs they act as social spaces where people can interact and foster moral and the transmissions of other societal values. The provision of such services by open spaces requires planning which details spatial distributions, uses compatibility visibility, accessibility and suitability to any specific needs. On the other hand, planning for conservation of natural values relies on factors of rarity, diversity, uniqueness, vulnerability and spatial distribution among others.

Market failures are also addressed by Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) as significant in the allocation of open spaces which consequently impacts on the planning approaches and models utilized. As asserted by Kim, Poulos and Smith (2002108) market failures such as the failures by local governments to account for the value of open spaces during land conversion for urban use contribute to excessive spatial growth of urban areas. Other market failures include public spaces, externalities and information asymmetry. As regular market mechanisms rarely ensure the appropriate location of the limited resources, open space planning becomes very critical in intervening and reversing the effects of market failure. The above characteristics which are discussed by Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) open up the discussion for approaches and methods of open space planning.

Amit-Cohen and Maruani (20074) indicates that demand approaches to open space planning focus on providing services which are in demand by the public. Such demands include demands for recreation, environmental quality and amenities and as portrayed by Haight, Polasky and Tajibaeva (2008171) among the effects of conserving open spaces is their capacity to provide amenities such as making neighborhoods more attractive. On the other hand, supply approaches ensure the conservation of natural values and other ecological and visual environmental attributes. Under the demand approach Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) discusses the models of opportunistic, space standards, park systems and garden cities.

Opportunistic open space planning models are ones which come up as a result of opportunistic occurrences without considerable systematic planning. Such opportunities include the donations of parks to the public as observed in London and Paris (Amit-Cohen and Maruani, 20075), from demolitions and spaces left over after the allocation and development of land. This model does not offer sufficient response to public demands or promote environmental conservation. Another model is the space standards quantitative model which involves planning under the guidance of principles of quantitative matching between spaces and the targeted population. This model is easily implemented as it does not necessarily involve considerations of ecological factors. Although it meets public demands adequately it may fail to address natural and environmental conversation. On the other hand, the park system model refers to interrelated open spaces in a specific area which are aimed providing the public with a variety of services. This model is easy to implement in new developing areas but may be highly restricted in already developed areas. The garden city model which is considered as a modern urban planning model regards open spaces as a part of the overall development. The spatial variations of open spaces are constituted in developed areas. This model has however, not been fully realized although it offers considerable inspiration to modern day land use planners.

Under the supply approach Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) discusses landscape and ecological determinism approaches. Landscape related models involve planning based on visual landscape values and has been used in past years in the conservation of stretches of valued landscapes like mountains, rivers and streams (Amit-Cohen and Maruani, 20077). In addition there are protected landscape models which aim at conserving endangered or unique landscapes. Under such models legal protections are very crucial in promoting their implementation. Ecological determinism is a model where land allocated for conservation is depicted with regard to its capacity of natural values. As asserted by Haight, George, Gregory, and Skibbe et al (20091617) conservation requires selection and planning strategies which enhance spatially cohesive reserves and ecological determinism models serve this function.

Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) compares the effectiveness of all these models and therefore attributed them to specific planning approaches. Shape related models do not fit either of the two approaches as they are affected more by the presence of natural factors. They include such models as the greenbelt, greenheart, green fingers and greenways (Amit-Cohen and Maruani, 20076). Another factor which affects these models is the applicability of different zones with demand approach models fitting more into developed urban areas and supply approach models into natural undeveloped areas. This is especially important as open spaces are indicated to transform over time in reaction to urban land development (Bomans, Dewaelheyns, Gulinck, and Leinfelder et al (2020196).

Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) have provided a comprehensive comparative study of open space planning approaches and models. This studys strengths include its comprehensive analyses of the various models and approaches. Not only does it showcase their historical background, it also provides examples of areas where these models have been implemented. For instance in discussing the opportunistic model Amit-Cohen and Maruani (20075) uses the illustration of modern parks in London which first appeared when the king donated land for public use. Literature used for building the studys content has been extensive and reflective of other research studies like Chow and Yeh (1996), Dekkers, Dijk and Koomen (2008) and Anderson and West (2006) which address the preservation of open space land planning and relevant models used. The use of a comparative study is also effective in understanding such distinct and diverse models and it also offers insight on the most appropriate models. Supply approach related models are shown to be applicable in undeveloped areas while demand approach models are reflected to be most appropriate in already developed areas. The figures and tables have also been amply used in showcasing these comparisons.

Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) has clearly stated the research studys objectives as earlier discussed and they have been fulfilled by the comparative study. Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) have provided evidence that open space land used planning approaches and models are dependent on the distinct characteristics and functions of open space land uses. Another major stronghold of this study is the use of an appropriate title which positively reflects the contents of the entire study.

Even though this research study is highly effective it has some limitations which include the lack of extensive comparison of the open land use planning models. While it compares different kinds of models, it would have been more effective if it showcased the application of these models in different circumstances such as regions and countries. Also, the study does not state any limitations of the study and neither does it acknowledge the need for further research.

In conclusion, Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) have discussed approaches and models of open space land use planning. Open spaces are considerably important in the conservation of the environment and recreational services. It is evident from the article analysis that these approaches and models depend on the distinct characteristics and functions of open spaces. They are therefore grouped according to their response to demand for services and the supply of natural values and environment friendly attitudes.

This research study is adequately comprehensive in achieving its objectives and will serve as significant evidence for planners and policy makers in open land use development. Such future research studies of open space planning approaches and models should incorporate extensive comparisons in regards to their applications in different regions or countries. Other factors which influence these approaches and models need also to be considered and how they differ in various regions and countries. All in all, Amit-Cohen and Maruani (2007) have instigated need for further research which will provide more information and understanding on the subject.