tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-17735568835956817692024-03-08T11:48:51.342-08:00Environmental Issuesbloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.comBlogger301125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-39345019683938016402017-02-23T00:53:00.000-08:002017-02-23T00:53:01.042-08:00Reading Journal Natural resource policy and managementReading journal entries<br />
Entry Number 1<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 01.01.2010, Entry No 1<br />
TITLE Gramlich, R. E (2006) The role of energy regulation in addressing generation market power, Environmental and energy Law and Policy journal.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
The monopoly of generator supplier exists at some time which disrupts smooth supplier demand cycle in the energy market resulting in unreasonable rates..<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
This article discusses the power mitigation of generation suppliers in the energy markets at one time. The author tries to find a solution to the dominant supply position of generators faced by the energy markets as the effect of anti trust law and the commodity regulation are negligible on the generation suppliers.<br />
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The author discusses the role of Federal Energy Regulation Commission in resolving this monopoly of power generators in the energy market to promote healthy competition among generator suppliers and maintain market rates.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
The author has pointed out a fact of energy market that is overlooked generally. The dominant position attained by the generator supplier in the energy market at one time is due to the structural features of the energy market and is inevitable. Hence means should be employed by FERC for maintaining just rates and overthrowing the monopoly of a single power generator supplier.<br />
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Entry Number 2<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 07.01.2010, Entry No 2<br />
TITLE Flatt V. B., (2006) What is the best formula to protect the environment in electricity restructuring Comment on the environmental impact of electricity restructuring by Karen Palmer and Dallas Burtraw, Environmental and energy Law and Policy journal.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
The author analyses the environmental impact of electricity restructuring by Karen Palmer and Dallas Burtraw.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
The author comments on The environmental impact of electricity restructuring looking back and looking forward by Karen Palmer and Dallas Burtraw trying to validate their research performed on the data concerning the impact of energy deregulation and restructuring on the environmental health. The author gives credit to the researchers for doing a commendable job but still shows concern for the works authenticity as he thinks that determining the effect on environmental health by energy deregulation and restructuring is a complex job.<br />
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The author performs his analysis in two portions, one regarding the data collection and analysis documented in the study and in second portion he tries to evaluate the inter relationship that exist between energy and environment.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
The author provided a detailed commentary on the analysis performed by the researchers and performs an in depth analysis to link energy restructuring and deregulation and its effect on environmental health. He stresses on avoiding any energy activity that may harm the environment and says that environment healthy schemes for manipulating energy should be adopted.<br />
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Entry Number 3<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 14.01.2010, Entry No 3<br />
TITLE Moss D. L. (2006) Electricity and market power current issues for restructuring market, Environmental and energy Law and Policy journal.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Moss surveys the literature in last fifteen years to understand current trends in the market power.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Moss makes an in depth survey into the current trends in the electricity and market power and also discusses the effect of restructuring that is taking place in the power markets. The roles of anti trust and policy makers and the impact of new policies that are creating problems for the energy market have been explored in detail by Moss in order to identify the factors that have complicated the market power over the last decade.<br />
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Moss points out the flaws in the antitrust and regulators approach to restructuring and emphasises on their lack of policy making tools that are hindering the smooth restructuring process.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
This is an informative article as it not only combines a survey of literature over the last fifteen years but also analyses the effects of restructuring in the power market. She makes an efficient analysis of market trends and incapability of the antitrust and regulators to fight the challenges of restructuring with limited set of policy tools.<br />
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Entry Number 4<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 26.01.2010, Entry No 4<br />
TITLE Farber D. A., (2007) Adapting to climate change who should pay, journal of land use Vol. 231.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Farber raises the issue that who should pay the costs of climatic changes.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Farber discusses the facts regarding the climate change that is now upon us and the main focus of her article is that who should pay for the cost of climatic impact. She emphasis on the responsibility of government and legal authorities to address this issue and make amends for the damage already done to the climatic conditions due to pollution and traffic hazards.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
On reflection, I find Farbers article very informative and awakening in the nature that until recently no significant notice was being given to the climatic changes experienced due to pollution and other contaminations that pollute our natural resources. The need arises to address such issues like adaptation Vs mitigation and bring to light the problems caused by technological changes on nature. These issues need to be addressed by our legal authorities to have laws that protect the natural resources.<br />
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Entry Number 5<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 05.02.2010, Entry No 5<br />
TITLE Lee, R. J (2007) Recent developments the changing tides of land use and environmental law, Journal of land use Vol 231.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Lee illustrates the use of land and environmental laws by discussing a number of related cases.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Lee researches the recent developments in land use and environmental laws by analysing a few related cases and studying the decision of court and the effect of environmental laws. She explains that the presence of laws dont usually guarantee an improvement in situation regarding land use.<br />
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Lee uses a different way of communicating facts through the evidence by exploring a number of cases fought in 2007 against the government on the issue of land use and the outcomes of the cases to conclude the use of environmental laws in the land usage.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
Lees approach is non refutable as she presents a number of cases that show a stand of land use against environment laws and she proves her point that changing trends in land use do not abide by environment laws and having laws does not guarantee the effective use of land. A need is present to constantly review and revise these laws for better implementation and observance.<br />
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Entry Number 6<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 15.02.2010, Entry No 6<br />
TITLE Warner, D. M. (2007) Use of subjective well being in local economic and land use policy, Journal of Land use Vol 232.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Economic growth requires extensive land use whereas conservation of natural resource requires minimal land use.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Warner encompasses in this article a debate of economic growth which requires land to be utilized for peoples benefit and conservation of natural resources that require the saving of land. Warner emphasizes that economic growth is at the expense of violation of environmental laws that are restrictive in the use of lands.<br />
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He breaks his study into four portions to address the issue in four aspects concluded after a thorough study that a balance needs to be maintained between economic growth and use of land.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
Warner has performed a detailed and in depth analysis and presented it in the form of debate. His approach is very detailed and language is simple which makes it easy to understand the problems related to maintain the balance between economic growth and the use of land.<br />
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Entry Number 7<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 22.02.2010, Entry No 7<br />
TITLE Neuman, J (2008) chop woods, carry water cutting to the heart of worlds water woes , Journal of land use vol232.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Neuman discusses the lack of sufficient water in many countries of the world while other countries waste water.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Neuman discusses the water problems faced by many countries of the world that are solvable and are present due to lack of interest of other countries that do not have similar problems. She goes over the facts and figures of many countries highlighting the problems faced by these countries due to lack of water and stresses the authorities to address the issue and find solutions.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
Neumans article on water problems faced by many countries and redundancy of water supply in other countries shed a light on the unfairness of resource distribution across the globe that still exist due to neglect and non interest attitude of the authorities. Such issues must be addressed at the global level and means should be employed to make a fairer distribution possible so that many countries that are devoid of basic needs of life like fresh and clean water may also enjoy these necessities.<br />
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Entry Number 8<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 03.03.2010, Entry No 8<br />
TITLE Martinez, L.H., (2005) Post industrial human activity and climate change why the United States must implement mandatory limits on industrial green house gas emissions, Journal of Land use Vol 202.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Recognition of the harmful impact on climate change by emission of industrial green house gases and need for mandatory laws governing this issue.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Martinez makes a study regarding the natural gas emissions in the climate that are useful for atmosphere against the industrial emission of green house gases that are harmful for the climate change and emphasis on the need of mandatory rules governing this issue so that further damage can be prevented and climate change due to these harmful emissions must be slowed.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
In order to promote the economic growth, industries have opened in great numbers to keep up with the cycle of demand and supply but now the disastrous effects of green house gas emissions from these industries are becoming apparent which are having an alarming effect on the climate change. Reading this article strengthens the belief that immediate and timely efforts are required to limit these emissions so that climate change can be controlled before further damage can take place.<br />
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Entry Number 9<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 11.03.2010, Entry No 9<br />
TITLE Melville D., (2005) Whisky is for drinking Recent water law development in Florida, Journal of Land use Vol 202.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
This article discusses the ongoing debate about the water sources in Florida.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Melville focuses on the water related debate going on for Florida in which he explains that the government wants to privatize a number of sources including the water resource allocation while the others from environmental community argue that it should remain a public resource as it has been until now.<br />
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Many reports came forward in this regard to maintain the water policy as a natural resource and not to be used for growth interests. A compromise can be reached by making appropriate policies for control of water and even distribution.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
The article on the water problem going on in Florida and the tussle between the government bodies that want to privatise this resource for economic growth and environmental bodies that oppose this decision highlights the facts and figures related to this debate and works for a compromise in the situation. The laws and policies that are offered are covered in great detail making the situation clear to understand.<br />
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Entry Number 10<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 18.03.2010, Entry No 10<br />
TITLE Johnson, T. (2010) Global Uranium Supply and demand, article from Council on Foreign relations.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Recovering Uranium from mines unexplored to meet the demand and supply cycle.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
In this article Johnson provides an overview of the Uranium demand in the markets and the need to recover the Uranium deposits that are distributed in mines across the world.<br />
He discusses the counties that have the greatest reserves of Uranium and estimates the cost required to recover this reserve of Uranium that would fulfil seventy years of the worlds Uranium requirements according to the authors study.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
Uranium is valuable and has many applications in the markets worldwide. This article provides useful information regarding the Uranium reserves and discusses the cost of recovering this Uranium reserve. These facts and figures are helpful in making decisions regarding Uranium exploits can be beneficial for the reader in long term study. However the author does not elaborate on the problems faced during these Uranium exploits and how they can be managed.<br />
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Entry Number 11<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 26.03.2010, Entry No 11<br />
TITLE Giovinazzo, C. T., (2006) Defending overstatement The symbolic clean air act and Carbon dioxide , article from Harvard Environmental Law review Vol 30.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Giovinazzo emphasizes the importance of the CAA (Clean Air Act).<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Giovinazzo highlights the importance of the CAA (Clean Air Act) which is often put down by implementers arguing that this act is unattainable due to its symbolic nature however Giovinazzo emphases that the use of this act is essential in controlling the content of rising carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is leading to universal problems like the black hole.<br />
The author argues that congress has added symbolic mandates to this act that not only makes it hard to neglect but plays an essential role when developing a framework for carbon dioxide control.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
This article gives an insight into the worthiness of CAA (Clean Air Act) which is disregarded due to its symbolic nature. The author is clearly in favour of the act and thinks it is quite useful in controlling the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Realizing the importance of clean and healthy environment one cannot reject the authors case especially in presence of the evidence he presents in the article.<br />
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Entry Number 12<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 04.04.2010, Entry No 12<br />
TITLE Nolon, J. R. (2006) Champions of change Reinventing democray through land law reform, article from Harvard Environmental Law review Vol 30.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Nolon discusses the importance of Land laws formulation across the levels of government.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Nolon in his article highlights the problems faced by local government in managing land use. The problems faced by the local governments are not acknowledged by the state and federal levels of government therefore creating a gap in the laws that come into form and the laws are needed to address land related problems.<br />
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Nolon suggests co ordination between all levels of government to bring the identified problems within a framework and then resolved through new and revised policies.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
Nolon has identified a very important issue regarding lack of communication between the grass root level workers and people in the state and federal offices which are the law makers. Close co ordination among these levels of government shall result in policies that would solve the land use problems.<br />
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Entry Number 13<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 15.04.2010, Entry No 13<br />
TITLE Krakoff S., (2003) Mountains without hand rails .Wilderness without cell phones, article from Harvard Environmental Law review Vol 27.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Krakoff discusses changing of natural wilderness in the light of Professor Joseph Saxs book Mountains without handrails.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Krakoff enlightens the reader in her article on the changing trends of recreating in natural environment which is being modernized by changing the wilderness to incorporate new technologies and comforts in the natural environment. According to the author this approach at recreation has robbed the nature of its peace and serenity and the experience of nature has been clouded by the use of technology.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
After reading her article I agree with the author that incorporating technology and comfort in natural environment like having luxurious resorts in the middle of forests to provide people with comfort robs the essence of nature which is associated with the feelings of hardships and exercise. Recreations related with wilderness like hiking and exploration dont go together with comforts like hotels and different services. It clouds the experience of nature.<br />
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Entry Number 14<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 22.04.2010, Entry No 14<br />
TITLE Laitos J. G., Gamble R. B., (2008) The problem with wilderness, article from Harvard Environmental Law review Vol 30.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
The authors discuss the different demands for wilderness and problems associated with these demands.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
According to the authors, land was used for economic growth but recently land use has become more varied with the land categorizing as natural resource and the need to preserve wilderness and transforming wilderness to recreational areas and wilderness parks have changed the scenario. As a result many conflicts have resulted with economist fighting to make the land productive and environmental commodities fighting to preserve land and use for recreation. These issues are addressed in detail in this article.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
Land is for building homes and industries it is also for preservation and recreation. A balance needs to be maintained among the use of land for different purposes. The laws that are present for land use help in solving this conflict and must be respected by all to prevent misuse and provide better future for our generations to come.<br />
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Entry Number 15<br />
DATE (of Journal Entry) 29.04.2010, Entry No 15<br />
TITLE Auslander J.M., (2006) Reversing the flow The inter connectivity of environmental law in addressing the external threats to protected land and waters, article from Harvard Environmental Law review Vol 30.<br />
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ISSUE<br />
Auslander discusses the external threats to lands and waters protected by environmental laws.<br />
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SUMMARY<br />
Auslander brings to attention the external threats faced by lands and waters that are the property of federal government and are set aside for recreational projects like parks and wilderness or are for preservation of nature. These lands if found to be enriched with minerals or other valuable resources become prone to external threats. Auslander uses a case study to high light these threats and shows ways to improve on environmental laws for better protection of these high threat prone lands.<br />
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REFLECTION<br />
Wilderness and land for recreational purposes is an asset for the country and have to be protected by environmental laws, but findings of minerals and other resources put these lands to threats from external sources. No compromise should be made on the perseverance of these lands and federal government should not get threatened to let go of these natural resources.<br />
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Reflection<br />
After weeks of reading and maintaining a reading journal and analysis of these articles related to natural resources policy and management, I find myself quite in command on the subject of protecting natural resources from harm and am reflecting on the articles and listening to news and view of people regarding these issues. I have also developed a keen interest in my class and participate actively and understand the matters going on around the world regarding natural resources and find myself sharing my views in the class.<br />
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This study has helped me gain insight about the conditions of natural resources prevailing in the world and what threats and problems are faced by environmentalist in protecting these assets from destruction. I have also gained a detailed knowledge of the different laws and policies present for the protection of these natural resources and by reading these articles I find myself better capable of making evaluations regarding the applicability of these policies and making insightful suggestion and recommendations for the betterment of the laws and policies governing the use of these natural resources.<br />
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One such recommendation is that the government bodies should keep in mind the conditions prevailing across the whole world regarding a certain natural resource and not the conditions in their specific region or area. This would give a global perspective to the law makers rather than a local perspective and would enable them to understand the problems faced all over the world regarding the use of the natural resource and they would be able to identify better ways for preserving it. Another consideration to be made in formulating laws and policies related to natural resources are that proper investigation should be made before structuring the law so that the law once formulated should have provision for application in all areas regarding a natural resource and not limit to only any one specific area. Prior to formulation an exhaustive approach should be used to analyse all possible situations that may arise during the implementation phase to encounter minimal problems after the law is formulated. This would help the lawmakers in evaluating the application of the law in all scenarios.<br />
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After maintaining the reading journal, I have also gained an awareness regarding the importance of protecting the natural resources of the world and the harmful impacts of human induced conditions like traffic pollution and green house gas emission through industries on the environment and climate change and on these natural resources. <br />
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The need has arisen for each person to join hands against these negative factors that are not only destroying the natural resources of the world, but also pose a threat to the humanity itself. A positive change can only be brought by identifying the factors that contribute to pollution and destruction of natural resources and try to diminish them by following the rules and regulations formulated by the individual governments and the whole world collectively. The laws regarding land use, water use, energy consumption and clean air must be respected and followed by individuals and organizations to make an effort at preserving our natural resources.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-30627746612961297082017-02-23T00:47:00.002-08:002017-02-23T00:47:29.920-08:00Environmental Marketing of the ProductsThe Environmental Marketing can be defined as marketing a product in such a way that its benefits to the environment are highlighted and explained to the target consumer. It has been observed that the Environmental Concerns have been on a rise in recent years, not only consumers are concern about environment but also producers present in different industries are indulged in producing environmental friendly products.<br />
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Recently I had a chance to view the commercials of some car manufacturing companies like Audi AG Toyota, they have taken a positive step towards the Environmental Marketing and Environment Friendly cars, Audi has manufactured Audi A3 TDI and Toyota has manufactured Prius Hybrid respectively which are completely based on Environmental friendly aspects, from their advertisements it is clearly visible that they are following an environmental friendly marketing strategy. The message conveyed by them through their commercials is quite effective and has brought about a change in the mind of the consumers. The present day consumers belong to a mobilized community which is aware of what is right and what is wrong. They have this tendency to take corrective measures and realize the importance of different things going around them, the approach adopted by Audi, Toyota and many other companies have brought about a drastic change in the attitude of the consumers regarding the products they utilize which are non-environmental friendly and might be hazardous, consumers are more willing to switch to environmental friendly products because environmental friendly marketing has helped them to understand the damages non environment friendly products can inflect on their surroundings (KrarupRussell,2005). Environmental Marketing is basically not only targeting the consumers which are already conscious about this issue, but instead its objective is to aware the consumer segment, which is not aware of such hazards, my personal attitude towards different products have changed since companies have introduced environmental marketing. The present day successful companies are not only focusing on their product but also on the value their product provides to the environment.<br />
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Environmental Marketing has a very clear message regarding environmental threats this message encourages consumers to be positive towards environmental friendly products. It is also an emerging fact that consumers are more into such product rather than those products which could be harmful to everyone. Governments of different countries are also encouraging the companies to develop such type of products which would be beneficial for all. It is a fact that environmental marketing is very effective and is also a competitive advantage for a company given the fact that your target audience is a empowered and mobilized community.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-83604371524975894482017-02-23T00:46:00.000-08:002017-02-23T00:46:34.665-08:00Air Pollution in Saudi ArabiaPollution involves introduction of pollutants to the environment. These contaminants may cause instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms that may be in that particular environment. Pollutants are the elements of pollution which can either be foreign or naturally occurring substances. In a case where the pollutants are naturally occurring, they are only considered as contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Sometimes the term pollution includes any substance which occurs at such unnaturally high concentration within a system that it endangers the stability of that system. For example, water is considered to be innocuous and essential to life although at very high concentration, it can be considered a pollutant. Therefore, water can be perceived to be a pollutant if taken in excessive amount because the physical system becomes overburdened which may result in its breakdown or death (Kreger 2004, p. 1).<br />
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There are different types kinds of pollution in Saudi Arabia but the most common types are water pollution, noise pollution and air pollution. This essay will mainly explore air pollution in Saudi Arabia.<br />
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Air pollution in Saudi Arabia is a major issue not only because it affects the country but because it also affects the neighbouring countries. As a result, many environmentalists are proposing new ideas to help in solving the problem through extensive development of pollution and environmental laws. Air pollution is the process of introducing pollutants of chemical, particulate and biological nature into the environment. An air pollutant is a substance in the air that is detrimental to humans or the environment. These pollutants may be natural or man made and they can be solid particles, liquid droplets or gases. Air pollution can occur in two forms the primary and secondary air pollution.<br />
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Primary air pollution happens when pollutants are directly introduced to the air whereas secondary air pollution occurs due to reaction of chemicals in the air. In Saudi Arabia, different human activities lead to the emission of chemicals in the atmosphere and their reaction leads to the formation of more dangerous substances in the air. The weather in Saudi Arabia also plays a major role in the formation and disappearance of air pollution because wind influences the transportation of air pollutants causing pollution to spread widely. On the other hand, rain can deplete pollutants from the air and lead to other types of pollution like soil and water pollution by converting sulphur into sulphuric acid sunlight helps in the conversion of the pollutants to different substances (Kaya 2004, p.107).<br />
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Sources of Air Pollution and Their Health Effects<br />
Air pollution in Saudi Arabia can be divided into various categories depending on the source from which its derived<br />
Biological air pollution-like pollen, small insects and micro organisms<br />
Physical air pollution-includes sound, thermal pollution and radioactive radiation<br />
Chemical air pollution- Such as the ozone, aerosols and ammonia (NRC 2004, p.311).<br />
Pollutants undergo various processes before causing air pollution which include the following<br />
Emission-whereby the contaminants are released into the air<br />
Transportation- This is the transfer of contaminants to other places through the air.<br />
Exchange Here, a reaction occurs between the different compounds in the pollutants and other compounds in the air.<br />
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Distribution- its a process where various contaminants in the air pollutants are distributed in the air.<br />
Emission- in this case the contaminants remain in a particular placeregion.<br />
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Deposition- its a process in which contaminants get deposited in specific places such as the soil. (Janneti 2007, p. 179)<br />
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The sources of air pollution in Saudi Arabia are the activities and factors which are responsible for releasing pollutants in the atmosphere and they are classified into two main categories anthropogenic sources and natural sources. Anthropogenic sources are the man made activities that pollute the environment while natural sources are those that are not induced by man in any way. Examples of anthropogenic sources are releasing of wastes from industries into the environment and an example of natural source is the eruption of volcanoes which release gases like methane that pollute the air.<br />
The most frequent categories of air pollutants that are found in Saudi Arabia are sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and tiny dust particles called aerosols (Carl 2010, p.1).<br />
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Sulphur dioxide Its released into the air in the process of burning any sulphur containing fossil fuels. The concentrations of sulphur dioxide in the air have decreased in the past two decades because of an increase in the use of more non-sulphur containing fuels to generate energy. Sulphur dioxide being a stinging gas, can result into breathing problems in humans. During rainy seasons, sulphur dioxide is converted into sulphuric acid that causes acidification (Hester 1998, p.4).<br />
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Nitrogen oxides They are contaminants emitted by automobiles, combustion installation like power plants and industries. Nitrogen oxides can also be released from large-scale farms that practice farming. Nitrogen oxides react with other air pollutants when they are present in the air. For example, nitrogen oxide plays a great role in the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere and eutrophication processes. Nitrogen oxides can penetrate the lungs and cause severe damage to their functioning (Hester 1998, p.12).<br />
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Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) These include contaminants like carbohydrates, organic compounds and solvents that are obtained from petrol, gasoline reservoirs, industrial processes and fuel combustion. These compounds play an important role in shaping ozone in the lower atmospheric layer. VOCs can cause various health effects although it depends on the type of compounds available and their concentrations. In addition, their effects vary from smell nuisance, decrease in lung capacity and even cancer.<br />
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Carbon monoxide This is a toxic gas that is formed due to incomplete combustion of fuels. For example such a gas can be formed when a car engine is run in a closed room. Carbon monoxide contributes to the formation of the greenhouse effect, smog and acidification. Carbon monoxide gas has the ability to bind to haemoglobin in blood hence preventing the transportation of oxygen in the body. As a result, there happens to be oxygen depletion in the heart, brains and blood vessels which causes death (Hester 1998, p.15).<br />
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Particulate matter Includes dust particles that form organic compounds and minerals. They can also be referred to as the total suspended particulates in the air which exist in solid or liquid form. Examples of such particles include dust, fumes and aerosols and they are usually less than 100 micrometers in size. The natural sources of particulate matter in the air are soil, viruses, bacteria, pollen and salt particle which evaporate from the seas. Dust particle are associated with various health effects like causing breath shortness because of slowing down the rate of rate of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood. Another health effect is overworking of the heart in order to cater for the oxygen loss (Colls 2002, p.60).<br />
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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons These refer to chemical pollutants that are found naturally in crude oil and coal. The natural sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are fires and volcanic eruptions while man-made sources are majorly industrial processes. Health effects associated to this pollutant are diseases of the liver, jaundice and kidney problems (Frederica 2009, p. 195).<br />
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In Saudi Arabia, the most polluted cities are Riyadh and Jeddah. Riyadh faces a problem of political violence and repression, political in the political and social environment which enhances air pollution due to commotion involved that raises dust. On the other hand air pollution is a big problem for Jeddah more so on hot summer days. This city experiences bush fires, landfill fires and pollution from the two industrial zones in the north and south Jeddah (DEH 2010, p.1).<br />
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Figures and Statistics<br />
Studies reveal that by the year 2007, Saudi Arabia experienced 5.6 air pollution of the total pollution that takes place in the country (CIA 2010, p.1). A comparison of air pollution through carbon monoxide emission in Saudi Arabia and North Africa in 1980, 1996 and 2009 shows that Saudi Arabia experiences a higher percentage of air pollution. The figures of carbon monoxide emissions are 3000, 11000 and 14000 metric tons in Saudi Arabia while North Africa exhibited 2000, 6000 and 4000 metric tons of carbon monoxide emissions in 1980,1996 and 2009 respectively (IEA 2001, p.1). The bar graph below shows a summary of this information.<br />
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Bar graph showing a comparison in Carbon monoxide emissions in Saudi Arabia and North Africa<br />
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Source (IEA 2001, p.1) httpearthtrends.wri.orgpdf_librarycountry_profilescli_cou_682.pdf<br />
On the other hand, research shows that emission of sulphur dioxide globally contributes to air pollution. A comparison of emissions of this pollutant in North America, Saudi Arabia and Africa shows that pollution by sulphur dioxide is lower than that caused by carbon monoxide. Percentage of air pollution by sulphur dioxide for the years 1980, 1996 and 2009 in North America, Africa and Saudi Arabia were 52.4, 7.5 and 6.3 of global emissions (Stern 2005, p.169). This information is tabulated below<br />
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Table showing comparison of Sulphur emissions in North America, Saudi Arabia and Africa<br />
RegionYearPercentage of global emissions ()North America198052.4Saudi Arabia19967.5Africa20096.3Source (Stern 2000, p.169)<br />
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Recommendations<br />
Since most of the sources of air pollution are induced by human activities which can be controlled to reduce the effects of this kind of pollution, I would recommend the following<br />
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People in Saudi Arabia should review their driving habits. This is because a big percentage of air pollution is from the emission of fumes from automobiles. Therefore people should drive less and make fewer trips with vehicles to help cut down on the car emissions. Driving less means that people should adopt alternative ways of transportation like walking or bicycle riding, ride in public transit. By so doing, air pollution by motor vehicles will be reduced.<br />
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In order to reduce indoor air pollution, it is important that people in Saudi choose air friendly products like air fresheners that are water based or have low amounts of volatile organic compounds instead of those made of smog-forming chemicals.<br />
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Outdoor air pollution can be reduced by reducing the use of chemical products which release toxic fumes or if they are used they should be tightly sealed with lids.<br />
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To reduce air pollution in factories, I recommend that air filters should be frequently changed to increase their effectiveness reducing air pollution.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
Air pollution just like any other type of pollution is equally harmful to the health of human beings. The fact that man plays a big role in air pollution, this problem can be easily solved if people in Saudi Arabia can cooperate in practising methods of reducing air pollution.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-16596338245539571472017-02-23T00:38:00.000-08:002017-02-23T00:38:14.911-08:00Human PopulationCensus Bureau of the United States has estimated that the current world human population is about 6,818,500,000 people. In 2009 the United Nation estimated the world human population to be around 6,800,000,000. This is an indicator that the human population is growing at a very alarming rate with an annual birth rate of approximately 134 million per year against 57 million deaths (Freeman. 1974).<br />
The alarming increment in the number of human on earth has raised queries as to whether the planet earth is becoming over populated. The human population is experiencing scarcity of resources due to the overpopulation. In order to them to counter this problem they have come up with ways that have in turn threatened the ecosystem. For instance there planet earth is warming up, the air is being populated, and the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide have risen (Freeman. 1974).<br />
<br />
It is estimated America enjoyed a low population of less than 100 million in the years 1950s. During this period there was a series of epidemics that were believed to have been introduced by their encounter with the explorers from Europe leading high death rates. Evidences provided by archaeologists indicated that most deaths of the current world were cause by diseases by the old world such as influenza, smallpox, and measles. However, with time the natives developed immunity towards these diseases (Collinson. 2002).<br />
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The life expectancy for children increased tremendously in the 18th Century and so did the human population due to introduction of vaccines, effective medication, and improved sanitation. As a result the United Kingdom alone is said to have doubled in every 50 years population. India s population has since grown from 125 million in 1750s to 1.5 billion. The 20th Century recorded the highest increment in human population worldwide. This is also attributed to increased agricultural produce and improved medical knowhow (Collinson. 2002).<br />
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Researchers have indicated that the rate of population growth has decreased except in the Middle East, Latin America and Sub-Saharan. However some countries such as Eastern and Central Europe and experiencing negative factors as a result of decrease in population. Japan and Western Europe are said to fact similar threats in the near future as a result of change in fertility pattern. A study done by the United Nation in 2006 showed that the drop in population growth was as a result of demographic transition. The report also indicated that should this pattern of growth remain unchanged, there might be zero rate of growth by the year 2050. Research indicates that Asia has the largest number of people of approximately 3.8 billion, which is 60 of the world human population, while Africa has 12 (Zuckerman. 1996). <br />
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Prediction<br />
The rapid increases in human population lead Thomas Malthus to predict in 1798 that the world would run short of food supply by the mid 19th Century. Paul R. Ehrilich, in 1968 predicted that famine would occur in 1970s and 1980s. However various economists challenged them as various measures had been put in place to counter the foreseen problem. For instance, the massive awareness of green revolution lead to increase in food production whose increment has been concurrent with the rapid growth of the population. Analysts have however warned that despite the increase in food production, the prices are sky rocketing making its accessibility to those who have the means, and thus a larger number of human population experiencing malnutrition (Collinson. 2002).<br />
<br />
Green Revolution<br />
The introduction of Green Revolution lead a 250 increase in food production for the year 1950 to 1984. However, the green revolution being supported by fuel irrigation among other things such as pesticides and fertilizers lead to acute prices of food. Therefore, despite the discovery saving the continent from dire famine, it has not entirely addressed the accessibility of food by the poor. United Nation reported that as at 2005 approximately 850 million people were facing malnutrition due to lack of purchasing power of food. The high production of oil is an indicator that oil is crucial for daily survival. Farming is now mechanized where by bio-fuel is required which has had an effect on the prices of the farm produce (Freeman. 1974). <br />
<br />
Overpopulation<br />
Overpopulation is said to be a serious threat for the next generation. Generally is a state whereby there are more humans on earth than the earth can handle in terms of provision of enough resources that would make them live happily and live it a fit place for the next generation users. However some countries provide incentives for people to increase their birth rate. This is said to have an impact of the growth of the economy and military security. Other critics have challenged such countries saying that the world is overpopulated and that failure to control birth rate is in fact increasing death rate by default. On one hand, some politicians call for countries, especially MDCs to increase their population size to maintain their economic growth and military security. On the other hand, critics denote that one out of five people living here today is not properly supported and believe that the world is already limited in resources (Freeman. 1974).<br />
<br />
Causes of Rapid Human Population Growth<br />
The world has seen a rapid increase in human population due to low death rate and increased birth rates. Above all the high skilled science and technological advancement have contributed in reduction of death rates. These innovations lead to increment in production and supply of food, the public health sector has been able to provide clean water and sanitation as well as introduction of effective antibiotics and vaccines which have contributed to prolonging human lives. In the past developing countries way of life was wanting. However, there has been the processes of education and global interactions that has lead to enhancement in their standards of living, and thus longitivity of lives. These innovations have seen discovery of treatment for diseases that once killed so many people such as measles, malaria, and flu (Zuckerman. 1996). <br />
<br />
Food Production and Distribution<br />
There also has been innovation in the agricultural sector, the biggest break through being genetically modified food as well as irrigation. For instance in the United states there was an increase in production from 631 million tones to 1.65 billion tones between the years 1950 and 1984. This is an indicator that the amount of food produce increased tremendously that can cater for increasing human population (Hutchinson. 2008).<br />
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These technologies has also allowed new breed of seeds, fertilizers and modern machinery which in turn has lead to expansion of agricultural sectors across the globe. Studies indicate the production of food has increased by 24 in the last 10 years. However, these expansion in food produce has not been witness evenly particularly in African Countries. Researchers have also confirmed that there is no food shortage in the world, but equitable distribution should be considered. There are very many people particularly in African countries that do not have sufficient cash to buy food (Collinson. 2002). <br />
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Public Health<br />
Survival of daily living is depended on basic needs such as safety shelter, food, and clean water. Initially inaccessibility of clean water would contribute to wiping out children from cholera. Studies indicate that in the year 1990, less than 50 of the human populations were capable of getting access to safe drinking water, however there has been in increase of accessibility of clean water to 75 afterwards. It was forecast that the accessibility to clean and safe drinking water was to increase by 14 in the year 2000 throughout the world (Hutchinson. 2008).<br />
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Housing<br />
Due to the rapid increase in human population, there has been the need to expand on housing. This has therefore resulted in evolution of urban centers which are highly populated. Due to high demand in housing, accommodation has become very expensive. As a result there has emerged high class, middle class, and low class societies. The poor are forced to live in slums, whereby women and children are exposed to threats such as rape and exploitation. There have been strategies by various governments throughout the world to eradicate poverty in vain. Cheap housing schemes have been designed by some governments unfortunately the number of the poor is appalling (Collinson. 2002).<br />
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Consequences<br />
Studies have confirmed that the poorest countries have the largest number of human population. Research has also confirmed that there is a correlation between poverty and fertility as well as high child hood mortality rate. Therefore the people who enjoy high standards of living have low fertility rates, these people also have a longer life span as opposed to the poor as well as lower infant mortality rate. In a nutshell poverty and overpopulation are associates of increase of death and diseases. This is because lack of adequate sanitary housing and clean drinking water lead to health issues (Freeman. 1974).<br />
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Developing countries have the highest number of human population as opposed to the developed countries. For instance one in every five persons in the Soviet countries live below the poverty line, as opposed to one of every eight person in America. Poverty is said to have been caused by the acute increase in population after the end of the 2nd World War. Poverty has the lead to death of mankind. Instead of allowing poverty to persist, it is important to limit our number be-cause in dense populations too many lack adequate food, water, shelter, education and employment. High fertility, which has been traditionally associated with prosperity, prestige, and security for the future, now jeopardizes chances for many to achieve health and security (Hutchinson. 2008).<br />
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Many governmental and non governmental organizations have been set up to ensure that the projected population in the coming years will be concurrent with production of food, water, heath care, technology, and education. For instance the development countries have put in efforts to ensure that both the social and economic conditions are at par. Programmes such as World Food Programme have been designed to ensure equitable distribution of food especially in developing countries.<br />
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Strategies to Counter These Problems<br />
Many scholars have differed as to whether the rapid growth of human population is a good thing or a bad thing. Too many people on planet earth have lead to its gross destruction particularly the eco system. There has been a global outcry to create awareness of the dangers of global warming. This has lead to the many states to develop policies that prohibit destruction of the earth. Children are now being taught at an early age about the advantages of reserving the forests and rivers (Hutchinson. 2008).<br />
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The communities are now being taught to plan their families as well as spacing them. Family control facilities are being distributed at no cost. Women are also empowered through education to control their fertility rate. Some governments have also come up with free health care in order to curb the problem of child death due to treatable diseases.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-25995242440687295512017-02-23T00:37:00.002-08:002017-02-23T00:37:18.527-08:00Exaggerated Global WarmingGlobal warming is worldwidely experienced climatic phenomenon but the question is, is it really that serious Global warming has been a major issue as a result of industrialization as well as human progress since the past few decades. The cry to bring global warming to an end has been carried on by private in addition to international organizations since the initiative was first put forward. Global warming occurs as a result of devastating factors that negatively affect the climate. There are numerous sources that give details about the causes and effects of global warming. Each and every living organism has been negatively affected by the current global warming. This paper will evaluate various sources in order to demonstrate the dangers of global warming. <br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
Gupta asserts that global warming is primarily a change in the climatic conditions of the earth (p, 4). These climatic conditions differ as a result of various reasons both internal and external. Changes to climatic conditions and thus global warming can occur as a result of natural, for example volcanic emissions and solar activity, or man-made circumstances, such as deforestation. The issue concerning global warming in the United States has in the past few years generated heated debates in the political arena. The former U.S. Vice President, Al Gore, an anti-global warming crusader, through the U.S. National Assessment of Global Warming as pointed out by Harmon, convinced a lot of people that global warming manifest an evident and current danger to the United States (p, 29). However, Al Gores report was termed as a misrepresentation claiming that it portrayed deliberate scientific deceit for the purpose of political agenda (Johnston para, 7). Many people, according to Johnston, claim that Al Gore failed the movement for climatic change and that his negligence resulted in an irreplaceable harm to the climate (para, 8). All in all Al Gore notes that global warming is an overwhelming danger currently facing the United States and the world at large. Gore asserts that left uncontrolled, global warming will tremendously affect the future of humankind (Harmon p, 36).<br />
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Exaggerated Global Warming<br />
Global warming occurs as a result of a combination of numerous factors. The solar variation theory, according to DSilva, states that the suns energy has been increasing day by day over the past sixty or so years (para, 1). This theory states that the sun may now be acting as a major cause of global warming. Studies, as illustrated by DSilva, have revealed that the amount of sunspots in a particular area directly affects the amount of time taken by the nearby earth to cool (para, 1). The sun acts as the main source of energy to the earth. The earth takes in a very large percent of the earths solar flax. As a result of this flax, the earth, land, and oceans atmospheric temperatures increase drastically (Sinha p, 89). Orbital forcing, as Sinha states, is the other factor believed to be a natural cause of global warming (p, 90). The slow tilting of the axis of the earth is also believed to have some negative effects on the climate. This tilting causes the sun to be positioned at different angles than normal, thereby causing it to hit the icebergs. The most significant cause of global warming is the greenhouse effect (Sinha p, 91). Green house effect is the increase in earths surface temperature as a result of infrared radiation from the atmosphere. Green house effect has led to an in crease in the atmospheric temperature by about 24. Increase in carbon dioxide is the main factor that results in greenhouse effect (Gupta p, 8). Methane is the other gas that is linked to global warming. The other factor that may lead to global warming is solar variations these are the changes that occur in the quantity of radiant energy emitted by the sun. Rapid industrialization is the other factor, in addition to natural causes, that result in an increase in global warming presently. Global warming is believed to have first been experienced about 8,000 years ago with the start of agriculture (Maslin p, 40). Forests were cleared, a factor that increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Industrialization is believed to increase the release of gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, which lead to global warming to the atmosphere. Forests are cleared in order to establish industries. Cutting down of trees results in an increase in the amount of carbon in the atmosphere as trees contain a very high quantity of carbon. Burning of fuel fossils is the other humankind activity that increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the air and, thus an increase in global warming. Over the past two decades the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that results in global warming has increased by about 80 (DSilva para, 5).<br />
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Although global warming is believed to cause numerous negative environmental effects, it is hard to link specific conditions to global warming. It is also hard to tell whether the link between the global warming and the tremendous global effects attributed to it are true. The former vice president of the United States, Al Gore, was highly criticized for publishing work that many claimed over exaggerated the effects of global warming for political gains (Harmon p, 41). However, the effects of global warming are dangerous and real. The two major effects of global warming are increase in the atmospheric temperature by approximately 3 to 5 C, and the rise of sea level by about 25 meters (Roleff p, 54). Increase in global temperatures result in a wide range of changes including rise in sea levels as a result of thermal expansion of the ocean, along with melting of the land ice. The numbers as well as the patterns of climatic phenomenon predictions are changing at a very high rate as a result of global warming (Maslin p, 45). The total power of hurricanes has increased as a result of global warming this is due to the increase in their average intensity and duration. Extreme changes in temperature and patterns of prediction increase the frequency, duration, and magnitude of other climatic events such as floods, tornadoes, heat waves as well as draughts (Roleff p, 68). Hurricanes as well as other storms are likely to become more and more intense if the current rate of global warming is not checked (Gupta p, 16). Global warming leads to a drastic reduction in agricultural production. It also leads to glacial retreat, lesser summer street flows, and extinction of certain species. Some species are moving from regions experiencing adverse effects of global warming to cooler regions.<br />
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This if left unchecked will result in tremendous changes in the ecosystems. Global warming is also believed to cause diseases, which had been eradicated in certain places, to return with severe consequences (Schneider p, 57). On average, precipitation has increased across the world. Schneider notes that the amount of fresh water drastically reduces with increase in global warming (p, 75). This leaves a lot of people as well as animals which rely on it for drinking water and power production without a source. Scientists predict that heat waves, hot extremes in addition to heavy precipitation will become a common phenomenon (Roleff p, 51). Scientists argue that the sea will become more acidic as a result of taking up more carbon dioxide (Schneider p, 79). Global warming, as asserted by Kriengsak, causes devastating economic effects to the U.S. as well as the whole world (para, 1).<br />
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Kriengsak argues that tornadoes and hurricanes in addition to other storms result in bullions of dollars in damage, disease and control of conflicts that may arise (para, 4). Global warming, according to Roleff, is also believed to be the major cause of extreme cold weather that has recently afflicted the eastern and southern regions of the United States (p, 87). This is believed to be as a result of movement of cold polar air masses to the southern regions. Global warming is also attributed to heavy snow falls. This is due to the fact that higher temperatures results in more evaporation of water in addition to higher humidity content in the atmosphere, and therefore to heavier snows incase the warm, humid air comes across cold air masses moving to the southern regions from the polar regions. The real exaggeration of global warming as a result of man-made related factors must be somehow greater than a factor of two, due to the fact that most of the rise in atmospheric temperature occurred before 1940, but carbon dioxide in addition to other green house gases entered the atmosphere after 1940 (Maslin p, 65). This may lead to a conclusion that the effect of green house can only be accountable for only a few proportions of the observed rise in temperature. Exaggeration of global warming for the last few years, as argued by Maslin, is important as it acts as a resource of the forecasts of a devastating global warming in the next century (p, 112).<br />
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Conclusion<br />
It can therefore be concluded that global warming, which is primarily a change in the climatic conditions of the earth, is a real danger to not only the united states, but also to the rest of the world. Private as well as international organizations have been in the forefront in the fight against global warming. The former vice president of the U.S, Al Gore, though was highly criticized, clearly illustrated the effects of global warming to humankind. The two major effects of global warming are increase in the atmospheric temperature by approximately 3 to 5 C, and the rise of sea level by about 25 meters. Global warming has also resulted in an increase in the total power of hurricanes due to the increase in their average intensity and duration. Global warming leads to a drastic reduction in agricultural production. Global warming causes devastating economic effects to the U.S. as well as the whole world. It also leads to glacial retreat, lesser summer street flows, and extinction of certain species.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-67289008046168379472017-02-23T00:31:00.000-08:002017-02-23T00:31:01.404-08:00A REPORT ON THE NECESSARY ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR A FEASIBLE PROJECT IN BOCO ROCK WIND FARMWhenever project decisions are made, one of the most critical questions considered is the financial impact. In most cases, where the project flows from a more developed standpoint to one that is lesser developed, there are certain advantages that such a project enjoys. However, there are certain risks as well, which the stakeholders need to be aware of. The task of this report is to analyze the environmental implications that may accrue from the decision by the Wind Prospect CWP Pty Ltd in carrying out the project in Boco Rock Wind Farm. This report should help the directors to determine whether the project is really favorable for environment or not. This report takes into account political, social, economic, as well as technological factors that have environmental consequences on the stakeholders. This is done in consideration of Environmental and Planning Assessment Act 1979 and of course other fundamental environmental policies.<br />
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Executive Summary<br />
Bock Rock Wind Farm had proposed development initiatives in a bid to come up with mechanisms to produce electricity from wind energy. The Environmental Assessment provided the modalities and logistics that would be used to implement the project, and mainly it advised on the potential impacts that would occur to the existing environment and community. All along, the project prioritized the proposed measures that would enable it to control potential adverse effects. In order to be more objective in its decision making, the opinion of the public was also considered. It is noted that the project was released to the public for their review and scrutiny. For instance, it was availed at Bombala and Cooma-Manaro council offices. This was a good move since it was a good way to capture the feelings of the people about the whole thing. Any project should be community friendly and one cannot establish this unless one seeks the communities opinion. Their decision to carry out consultations in order to point out issues that were not agreeable to public and other stakeholders was very important as it would add value and confidence to the project.<br />
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This report has a number of objectives and it aims to among other things to analyze the Environmental Impact Assessment and how it would be useful in the mitigation of the potential impacts from the operations of the project it pinpoints the fundamental consequences and predicts their magnitude it outlines the best measures to be observed in order to mitigate the adverse impacts it establishes a harmonic connection between the propagators of the project and the stakeholders overall, it provides a template that supervises and oversees the environmental management program proposed.<br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
Whenever a company considers carrying out a project of whatever kind, it is important for it to consider the potential hazards attached to it. Normally, most companies will consider the financial risks especially, in the quest to minimize losses. It is the hope of all companies that they will make lucrative deals out of the project. Looking at the trends in the modern world today, companies are changing their assessment procedures that is they not only consider the financial risks but also the socio-political impacts the project might have, not forgetting the environment. It is not within the companys mandate to consider the environmental implications of its project, as such, it is a statutory requirement. A right thinking government today has put stern regulations geared towards the protection of environment.<br />
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The decision by the Wind Prospect CWP Pty Ltd to establish itself within the prescribed environmental statutes says a lot. It is worth noting that this move comes at very critical moment when environment has become a serious reality. Indeed, there is a lot that the company needed to consider before initiating the project. Boco Rock Wind Farm project had great potential to being an enemy to the environment. In this regard, there are a number of environment related issues that should have been put into consideration by the management of the company when it deliberated on the dynamics of this project. This is because a decision of such magnitude could have serious environment consequences to the stakeholders if not carefully examined. This report considers the environmental impact and concerns that arise out of the decision by the company to carry out the project at Boco Rock Wind Farm. Various aspects of environmental implications such as biophysical and socio-economic, as well as purchasing power parity will be considered.<br />
<br />
The Report Procedure<br />
Its main focus is based on the assessment of the environmental impact that would result from Air quality Noise and Vibration. This analysis shall take into account the prescription spelled out in the Environmental Impact Assessment. The framework within which this assessment will take place is characterized by the following precision and dependability in regard to impact identification and also in relation to its significant magnitude in addition, a feasibility study will be conducted in ensuring that the control mechanisms are adequate enough to mitigate potential adverse environmental impacts. More importantly, the biophysical aspect, socio-economic aspect and culturalheritage aspect, will also be considered.<br />
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Bock Rock Wind Farm Project<br />
The project aimed at establishing a long-term project that would generate electricity. More specifically, it aimed at creating over one hundred and twenty five turbines and ancillary structures. This would take place on Monaro Plains which was a high altitude plateau. The importance of the erected wind turbines were meant to produce electricity from wind energy.<br />
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The scope of Wind Prospect Group was far-reaching. It has been noted that it had initiated similar projects, particularly in renewable energy in states like Australia, New Zealand, and USA among others. Notably, it has been in service for 18 years.<br />
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The proposed Project development would establish over one hundred and twenty five wind turbines constituted of an on-site electrical cable network and an on-site collector substation. In addition, it would access tracks hardstand areas which stretched up to four wind monitoring masts and significant site signs would be hoisted. In the end, the project would also see an installation capacity of about two hundred and seventy Mega Watts but on condition of the model of turbine selected. The wind farm would have its operations controlled by use of remote computer control, local operations as well as the maintenance staff.<br />
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The proponent would settle for a final turbine selection by placing tenders prior to the Development approval.The turbines that were utilized for the project were three-blades, with fifty percent variable speed as well as pitch controlled machines which had the rotor and nacelle escalated on a decreasing cylindrical steel tower. The height of the turbine was approximated to be one hundred and fifty tow meters from the ground to the tip of the blades which had a height of between 80 and 101.5 meters as well as blades with lengths between 44 and 52 meters. The wind turbines that were to be utilized in this project had a number of variations in that the generation capacity varied between 1.8 and 3.3 Mega Watts. On average, turbines of this degree start to generate electricity at wind speeds around 4 meters per second and go off when wind speeds rise above twenty five meters per second. Normally, the shutting down when the wind speed is very high is a good control since it ensures safety or better still, the shutting down meant for safety reasons.( See figure below). <br />
<br />
Fig. 1<br />
Again, about four stable wind monitoring masts of around one hundred meters in length would also be installed. In this light, the masts were meant to monitor the performance of the wind turbines as well as provide necessary information that would be useful in determining the progress of the activity. The wind monitoring masts consisted of guyed narrow lattice and tabular steel design. It was noted that the electricity generated by every wind turbine generator would be converted to thirty three Kilovolts through a transformer situated either at within or adjacent each turbine. The electrical cables that went underground run at the depth of about 0.8 to 1 meter underneath the ground surface. This was meant to conduct the electricity that emanated from the wind turbines to the collector substation.<br />
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It was approximated that the collector substation would require one hectare of land as well as include a grid connection infrastructure and buildings, at least on average. The significance of the selected location would ensure that the visual impact of the wind farm would be minimal especially through the sitting of the collector a distance from regularly used public roads located at the Sherwins Ranges hills. In fact, this would ensure that the potential visual impact that would result from the Projects internal electrical infrastructure was kept to the minimum. It was imperative to establish a new transmission mechanism which would be connected to the existing electricity grid. Above all, this would harness the energy generated by the project. This requirement could not be met until the following consideration a new double-circuit of one hundred and thirty two kilovolts overhead transmission line needed to be constructed. In addition, this would connect the Project with another two established Country Energy lines situated at about twenty five kilometers east side of the collector substation. The good news was that the proposed transmission line would belong to Country Energys network and as a result the Country Energy would be the sole proprietor and operator of the new transmission line infrastructure.<br />
<br />
Validation of the Project<br />
Evidently, it has been acknowledged globally on the necessity in mitigating the environmental effects linked to fossil fuel energy production. This acknowledgement is evident in international, national and state wide commitments promoting the progressive development of less-hazardous energy projects. Notably, the Australian Government approved the Kyoto Protocol which resulted to the cutting of greenhouse gas emissions to one hundred and eight percent compared to the levels they were in 1990. This turning point decision would see Australias position grow in the realm of climate change in the international arena. Through a legislation process, the Renewable Energy Target was reinstated. It aimed at ensuring that twenty percent of electricity in Australia was produced from renewable resources come the year 2020. The cheapest mode of generation would be Wind energy as it was of low cost, potentially renewable and could be implemented to achieve a significant portion of this target. The project posed a great advantage and feasibility in the quest to increase the local as well as global need for renewable and recyclable projects. Besides, the project acted as solution in tackling the issues of Global Warming and Climate Change. Notably, it would contribute about 1.75 percent of new renewable production in a bid to attain the projected Australian target. <br />
<br />
Environmental Impact Assessment<br />
An environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a fundamental instrument for identifying the environmental, social, and economic impact of a project prior to its implementation. It can anticipate potential damage and as a result provide necessary mitigation mechanisms. The managers of Bock Rock Wind Farm Project ought to be aware of EIA requirements.<br />
<br />
It aims to anticipate the environmental, social and economic impacts at an early stage in project planning and design. It advises on the procedures that can be established to reduce possible adverse impacts, shape projects to match the local environment and recommend suitable options to decision-makers. It identifies and evaluated suitable the beneficial as well as the adverse impacts, the most environmentally suitable, cost effective and practical option together with the alternatives. Furthermore, it should provide recommendations for mitigation of negative consequences, monitoring and auditing project implementation.<br />
<br />
Impact Identification<br />
In a bid to point out the potential environmental impacts of the project, wide consultations took place between the proponent and other stakeholders. A number of procedures were established that served as mitigation templates in case of adverse impacts. These consultations were included in the environmental assessment so as to develop most favorable wind farms design that would balance environmental, social, economic and cultural needs.<br />
<br />
It was noted that there was a possibility of potential visual effects linked to the wind farm, as well as glinting. However, it was believed that relatively rare and shadow flicker effects would not likely be a major issue for any of the local dwellings due to the careful development of the turbine layout. In addition, the project posed a number of visual influence.<br />
<br />
Hearing is used relentlessly for communication and in the responsiveness of the environment. Noise is generally undesired sound and, to some degree, what one individual regards as noise may not be noise to another individual. In this regard, it was noted that the inimitable acoustic emissions from wind turbines was a potential danger to the surrounding communities.<br />
<br />
Biobanking procedures and assessment were used in Vegetation mapping flora quadrats assessment. In this regard, it was established that the project operations did not support seven threatened fauna species and one endangered ecological community. In addition, habitat was also endangered together with flora species although this was not well documented.<br />
<br />
The following were the purportedly threatened species and endangered ecological communities recorded on site Natural Temperate Grassland Grassland Earless Dragon Little Whip Snake Diamond Firetail Eastern False Pipistrelle Eastern Bentwing Bat and oceanensis Squirrel Glider. One migratory species, the White bellied Sea Eagle was also recorded within the Project site, along the McLaughlin River.<br />
<br />
Notably, the Aboriginal people lived in the Cooma Monaro district and its environs for at least 21,000 years. During this time, there was recurrent utilization of the high country, with migration happening largely during summer in a bid to attend inter tribal ceremonies, which took place in the project site.<br />
As per the assessment report it was determined that the archaeological resource in the Project site did not interfere with the Aboriginal cultural heritage standards and guidelines kit. However, the establishment of the Project would amount to grave physical impacts to the Aboriginal objects that might be directly situated within impact areas in spite of their archaeological significance. Indeed, any Aboriginal object directly located within the vicinity of impact would be comprehensively disturbed, andor destroyed during construction.<br />
<br />
It was predicted that Ground disturbance during the construction phase of the project had the potential to cause straight consequences to any Aboriginal objects or Non Indigenous items which were present on site. Aboriginal objects in form of stone artifacts were expected to expand in a relatively continuous, although the low density allocation across the broader landscape encompassed by the Project. In general, the foreseen impacts were predicted to be distinct in nature given that the footprint of construction activities were relatively small and, for this reason, effects to the archaeological resource across the landscape would not have significant consequences.<br />
<br />
According to the assessment it was hoped that the addition of 240 vehicles per day would adversely impact on the existing road users, more so, on the minor and unsealed roads, for about two years until the completion of the construction of the project. Furthermore, major impacts were anticipated to take place during the construction period, while on the other hand, minor impacts were also anticipated during the operational phase.<br />
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The large structure, including wind turbines, which occurred within or close to the signal path, was a potential interference. In particular, this interference could affect the signals as well as degrade their performance. In addition, the electromagnetic emissions that proceeded from the generators and other machinery also had the potential to interfere with the signals. Nonetheless, the modern turbine generators and strict International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) regulations for manufacturers, ensured that there would be no negligible emissions from wind turbine.<br />
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There were several links and omnidirectional services which took place across and next to the Project. Considering the layout of the Project, the predicted impacts were expected to be minimal. The chances were that television interference would be experienced by some landowners in the area.<br />
It was purported there would be minimal effects to the surrounding groundwater as well as the surface water given that the Project would be sourcing its water from an existing on site dam. Again, it was hoped that there would be limited activities within these areas and effective mitigation actions and management. However, potential impacts were likely to take place especially due to the construction activities. However the Soil and Water Management Plan strategy ensured that all alleged adverse effects were within controllable measures.<br />
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Impact Assessment<br />
According to LVIA, each of the seven Landscape Character Areas within the Project viewshed had a Medium sensitivity to allow change, and represented a landscape that is reasonably typical of other landscape types found in surrounding areas of the Monaro, as well as landscapes within the wider regional context of the NSW Southern Tablelands. In addition, it established that the Project was likely to be an suitable and satisfactory development within the viewshed, which in a wider view consisted of built elements such as roads, agricultural industry, aircraft landing strips, communication and transmitter towers and power lines. In general, the cumulative visual effect of the Project in combination was anticipated to have low visual impact. In this regard, it was considered that the Project was well suited to the scale of the landscape furthermore it was not likely to occasion unacceptable cumulative visual influence.<br />
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According to surveys which targeted a number of local populations within the Southern Tablelands, suggested about eight nine percent of respondents were in favor of wind farms being developed in the Southern Tablelands, while on the other hand, seventy one percent of respondents expressed support of the development of a wind farm within one kilometer from their residential dwelling. This result was closely reflected in the responses gathered by the Project Proponent from a Public Opinion Survey and online survey which recorded 72 of respondents approving of wind being used to generate renewable energy.<br />
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Wind turbine noise had been predicted and assessed against relevant criteria prescribed by the SA EPA Guideline and World Health Organization (WHO) goals where appropriate. Layout Option 1 (125 WTGs), equipped with REpower MM92, 92.5 m rotor diameter, 100 m hub height, 2.05 MW turbines was predicted to comply to all relevant noise criteria, SA EPA Guideline and WHO limits, at all respective receivers. Layout Option 2 (107 WTGs), equipped with Siemens SWT 2.3 101, 101 m rotor diameter, 100 m hub height, 2.3 MW turbines was also predicted to comply with all relevant noise criteria, SA EPA Guideline and WHO limits, at all respective receivers.<br />
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An assessment had been carried out to the Construction noise impact, blasting impact and vibrations levels. In this regard, the worst case scenarios were considered to be quite acceptable. Furthermore, another assessment had been conducted regarding the Construction traffic noise impact and it was noted that the maximum construction traffic generated scenario would augment the present traffic noise levels along local roads by about three to seven dBAt.<br />
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In order to minimize traffic impacts reduce community disruption and the risk of traffic incidents a range on management and mitigation strategies had been proposed during the construction, operation and decommissioning phases of the Project. In turn this would facilitate minimum disruption to existing traffic conditions. It was noted that there were no aerodromes within or in the vicinity of the Project Study area, so there were no concerns with regard to the Project impacting on OLS and PANS OPS of airfields. However, part of the regulations proposed included lighting requirements for tall structures. The Ambidji Group conducted an independent Aeronautical Impact Assessment and Obstacle Lighting Review, which established that the Project did not have any operational justification for the provision of obstacle lighting, and therefore would not require any turbines to have hazard lighting.<br />
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Environmental Safeguards and management<br />
A number of amendments had been made to the proposed layout in order to reduce and avoid impacts on the ecological values of the site. Given the extensive areas of NTG across the site area, particularly across the Sherwins Range, and the requirement for turbines to be placed on ridge tops, the opportunities to avoid all impacts on NTG were limited. However, it was not possible to completely prevent placing turbines in areas supporting woodland as that would impact upon the Projects feasibility,<br />
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The avoidance measures that would or had been implemented to minimize impacts on the ecological integrity of the site as well as maintaining the engineering and economic feasibility of the wind farm were summarized as follows access roads had been designed to follow current tracks and roads present within the study area where possible to minimize additional vegetation clearance for access electrical cables would be placed underground and within the road footprint where possible to allow for temporary rather than permanent disturbance and electrical cables would pass overhead across significant gullies and waterways to reduce impacts. NTG was present across much of the western portion of the site. Whilst it was not possible to avoid areas of NTG completely, the following had been undertaken to minimize and avoid impacts on this community Road layouts had been placed outside areas of NTG so as to minimize fragmentation of NTG where feasible Potential locations for concrete batching plants had been sited in disturbed and sown areas to avoid further impacts on NTG and Temporary construction facilities would be located in disturbed areas and within the current development envelope wherever it was possible.<br />
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Recommendations<br />
On the basis of the reported findings, this report further recommended that the company goes ahead with the proposed development of Boco Rock Wind Farm. This is because, after a thorough environmental analysis of the situation in this project, it was found favorable to take place. <br />
A significant amount of funds was set aside for the purposes of realizing the projects objectives especially in the maintenance of an environment friendly atmosphere. A constant observation should be made to ensure that all the mechanisms put in place to regulate environment hazards. This is especially crucial considering the potential impacts the project has to the environment. Even if the predictions made it look like a good activity, the stakeholders should have never took it fro granted. Indeed, the project potentially posed adverse environmental hazards therefore, there ought to have been concrete indications of what the Company intended to do when confronted with spontaneous environmental hazards. The report did not indicate what they would do to solve such adverse effects.<br />
Again, a feasibility study ought to have been conducted to further establish the political, social, as well as legal situations in the surrounding neighborhood, and their implications on the financial returns of the company.<br />
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Conclusion<br />
The need for this report arose out of the decision by the management of Wind Prospect CWP Pty Limited, to carry out the project at Bock Rock Wind Farm. The aim was to establish whether such a proposed project would generate adverse environment hazards both to the stakeholders. This report has established that the company is very well advised to consider such a move.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-15527490081735023412017-02-23T00:29:00.001-08:002017-02-23T00:29:29.931-08:00FOSSIL FUELSFossil fuels belong to non-renewable sources of energy that are accountable for giving the energy required around the world for many families and industrial facilities like electrical generators and others. Deposits of these kinds are generally found deep within the earth surface which is often needed to be mined. Fossil fuels are also rich in carbon remains of prehistoric civilization and other creature that have lasted in severe heat and pressure deep within the earth over millions of years. Researchers said that there are three types of fossil fuels which can be utilized for energy consumption such as natural gas, oil and coal.<br />
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Natural gas is a gas that consisted primarily of methane (CH4) substance. It is in the form of gaseous fossil fuels that are very flexible, plentiful and comparatively clean compared to oil and coal. It is also created and formed from the remains of marine microorganisms such as plankton and other type of small water creatures like algae. However, compared to the other types of fossil fuel, it is relatively a new kind of energy supply.<br />
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In 1999 more coals are used than natural gas since people were scared that like oil, the supplies of natural gas will run out. For example, developed countries like United States, Japan and others have overtaken the consumption of coal than natural gas (Miller 1999). Moreover, some researchers forecasted that the supply of natural gas will run out by the end of 21st century. Since it is primarily consists of methane, the gas is highly compacted in a small volumes at huge depths of the earth. In terms of getting this kind of fossil fuel, it needs to be conveyed to the surface by drilling. Moreover, in terms of supply, it reserves are can be seen around the globe since it were evenly distributed unlike oil.<br />
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On the other hand, oil is a liquid type of fossil fuel that is created and formed from the remains of marine organisms just like natural gas. The process is so complex that after millions of generations, the deposits will end up in a sediment and rock where oil is ensnared in small holes. Just like the natural gas, it needs to be conveyed by drilling in able to get the residue (commonly called as crude oil). Today, this kind of fossil fuel is widely used type of non-renewable sources of energy (Miller 1999). Crude oil contains various types of organic components which are brought to refining establishment to further transform the product in a more refined residue. Many types of industries including cars, jets, electricity, roads and many others utilize this kind of fossil fuel. However, oil is a kind of non-renewable sources of energy which cannot be found everywhere on earth. Thus, various events like wars resulted in shortage of search of kind of fossil fuel just like what happened in the Gulf War in 1991.<br />
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Lastly, coal is a solid kind of fossil fuel that was created and formed over millions of generations by decomposes remains of land vegetation. This is formed when layers are compressed and heated over time. The results are natural deposits that are eventually turned into coal. In comparison with the two types of fossil fuel, coal is more abundant in supplies. However, some researchers forecasted that the use of coal around the world will heighten as oil supplies become inadequate. They predicted that current supplies of the coal in the world will last for at least 200 years or more. In the recent study conducted by various researchers, they found out that the use of coal was doubled in the middle of 20th century. However, at the start of 1996, there is a decline in the use of coal (McKinney and Schoch 2003). Many developing countries were the primary consumer of this kind of non-renewable sources of energy since they cannot afford the high price of natural gas and oil.<br />
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Traditionally, these three kinds of fossil fuels were in abundant supply that was simple to have and transport. But now, signals are showing that these supplies are beginning to be depleted. It is a fact that it needs millions of years before these fuels will be replenished. Then one may ask, Why are we still using fossil fuel in huge amount Thus, the answer is very simple and easy to explain. Fossil fuels are cheaper than any kind of reasonable alternative energy that human known. Compare to renewable energy like wave, wind and solar energy, they need large amount of money in able to obtain them. However, many scientists have already forecasted that fossil fuel will increase in price because of scarcity. Therefore this may lead to an eventual transfer from non-renewable to renewable sources of energy in the coming years.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-62771441485041597472017-02-23T00:28:00.002-08:002017-02-23T00:28:50.985-08:00CURRENT TRENDS IN PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENTThe issues brought by plastic waste have been identified along with current practices employed to reduce consumption, recycle, and reuse plastic waste. An update on the recent state of the environment especially the amount plastic waste filling up landfills poses challenges to everyone, especially consumers and manufacturers of plastics. Nevertheless, some novel techniques to recycle plastic waste provide hope to future generations despite the worsening problems.<br />
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Current Trends in Plastic Waste Management<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Plastic has become an inevitable part of human existence. It can be found everywhere in households, offices, schools, construction sites, factories and laboratories. Instant noodles, sugar, salt, diaper, shampoo and detergent soaps are just some household commodities that make use of plastic packaging to ensure product quality. Every day, numerous people all over the world avail of or utilise these products, thus add up to the pile of plastic waste in landfills, consequently causing disadvantages to mankind. According to Parfitt (2002), plastic makes up at least 7 of the average household trash bin. Put together and combined with other waste matters, this could easily fill up landfills. In this view, the need for effective plastic waste management is highly relevant.<br />
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Like other inventions in history, plastic has both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, the advantages of plastic have made it an inevitable part of human life. Many products such as fresh meat and vegetables require freshness thus need to be packed in plastic. Plastic protects the product from outside bacteria that can cause spoilage. Likewise, plastic bags allow easy transport from grocery to home considering its durability. Using plastic bags, one can be sure to arrive home without leaking meat products or seafood. In addition, plastic bags separate foods from soaps and other toxic products.<br />
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Plastic is also beneficial in the industrial field. Pipes made of plastic are used typically in buildings and other construction sites. The use of plastic assures affordability, durability and convenience of use. Considering its advantages, people cannot easily rid of plastic. It is therefore supposed that the manufacture of plastics will continue in the years to come.<br />
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On the other hand, as many manufacturers prefer to use plastic due to its affordability and durability, consumers are left with no choice but to consume products in plastic packaging.<br />
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Many oppose the use of plastic due to its hazardous effects on the environment and eventually to mankind. Nonetheless, plastic production cannot be easily controlled despite strong oppositions due to its . In response, recycling processes have been implemented all over the world. In particular, the Australian government recommends the use of green bags for grocery needs. However, this effort is very minimal compared to the plastic bag consumption of 3.92 billion in 2007 alone (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2009). In this regard, it is rational to find other means to reduce plastic bag consumption if eradicating them totally is unfeasible.<br />
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Many products come in plastic containers. As people consume these products each day, they contribute to the heightening amount of plastic waste products in landfills or those that clog in drainage systems. The incessant use of plastic consequently implies the continuous manufacturing of plastic products. The cycle never stops, thus leaving a worse environmental scenario where plastic materials are left to occupy space in landfills for countless number of years.<br />
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2. The Disadvantages of Plastic<br />
The negative impacts of plastic have been identified by a number of studies (Parfitt 2002 Pol 2010 Agamuthu Faizura 2005 Atienza 2008 Ellis, Saab Watson 2005) and environmental organisations (Clean Up Australia 2007 WRAP 2010). Plastic production and consumption present some serious environmental impacts. First, in view of production, it should be noted that plastic requires several resources including petroleum and other chemical substances that may harm the environment through greenhouse gas released when discarded in landfills. To date, many landfills have been filled up by non-biodegradable plastic waste, posing great threats to human life. On a different note, the petroleum needed to produce a single plastic bag is enough to travel 11 meters. This means that eradicating the production of plastic bags may conserve a lot of petroleum, thus decreasing demand for import especially among countries that do not have the said resource. 2.1 Environmental Impacts<br />
Discarding plastic either in designated areas such as landfills and non-designated areas such as roads and streets is always unsafe due to the land pollution it causes. Plastic wastes decompose very slowly, if they do at all. It is a common knowledge that the average plastic would last hundreds of years despite being deposited in landfills. A single plastic bag alone can last up to 1000 years (Stevens 2001). Incineration, which is a traditional way to decompose plastics, has likewise garnered attention due to the pollution it causes the air and the adverse effects it has on the ozone layer.<br />
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It is distressing to know that over a billion animals die annually from ingestion of plastics (Baker, 2002). Unmindful throwing of plastic waste directly causes death among animals. Unaware of the nature and effects of plastic bags, animals feed on plastics littered in their habitats, and soon die of choking. In India, cows and other farm animals were reported to have choked on plastic bags, after they were thrown in farms. Likewise, plastic wastes which find their way in aquatic resources become the main cause of death of fishes and other sea creatures as they mistake the waste for food resources. Reports also reveal that plastic litter continues to pollute the Pacific Ocean, threatening aquatic life. The amount of plastic content weight in Ocean is 46 times more than that of planktons, causing the ocean to be permanently polluted (Plastic Litter and Waste Reduction Campaign 2010) especially since most plastics are non-biodegradable waste.<br />
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Moreover, plastic littered in city streets become the main cause of floods as they block drainage systems. This has been a common problem among various countries worldwide. For instance, in Dhaka Bangladesh, it has been reported that great floods which soaked the capital twice (first in 1989 and second in 1999) were mainly caused by plastic bags clogging the main drainage system. In Mumbai India, 1000 people died and many others suffered in 2005 due to floods caused mainly by plastic bags that clogged canals and drainages.<br />
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Furthermore, plastic littered everywhere reduces the rate of rain water percolation, thus resulting in low water levels especially in the cities. Consequently, the lack of rain could cause drought and other disadvantages not only to people but to other living things as well. It also results in deterioration of the soil, affecting much of agricultural life and means.<br />
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Finally, plastics serve as eyesore in the environment. The sight of plastic between bushes and trees, along streets and alleys, or in commercial establishments and other public places destroys the image of the people living in that area. A community polluted by plastic waste gives an impression of ignorance and hostility to the environment. Ultimately, these attitudes may affect the way tourists feel about the place and its people, consequently decreasing tourism and investment opportunities in that particular area.<br />
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2.2 Impacts on Human Health<br />
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In the worst case scenario, plastics present direct threats to human life. By clogging sewerage pipes, plastics cause stagnation of water, which eventually serve as ideal habitat for mosquitoes that bring encephalitis, dengue fever, and malaria. To add, there have been issues that plastic containers and packaging can cause cancer after long-term use. In addition, eating food contained in styrofoams are said to be potential cause of poisoning under specific circumstances. A recent study (Commodity Online 2010) conducted in Kyoto Japan discovered that plastic shopping bags released by some supermarkets contain high levels of lead. The lead content that exceeds by 250 times that which is permitted by the European Union, may be due to dyes used to tint the bags. The lead content in these bags can cause harmful effects to living creatures when inhaled or infiltrated into water and other food sources.<br />
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3. Current Trends in Plastic Waste Management<br />
3.1. Reducing Plastic Bag Consumption<br />
Plastic bags are among the most used consumer items on Earth (World watch, 2010). Carelessly thrown, they pose a great danger to all living things as they get wrapped up in the branches and roots of vegetation, leading to inadequate supply of air, sunlight as well as water, which are all vital for the sustainability of all living creatures. In response to the drawbacks of plastics, many countries throughout the world have implemented ways to reduce plastic consumption. Clean Up Australia (2007), a non-profit organisation concerned with environment and waste management reports the decision of many countries to ban plastic shopping bags in order to significantly reduce plastic consumption. Some countries have already been successful in their implementation of ban on plastic shopping bags while others are experiencing some difficulties due to consumer and resistance of plastic manufacturers. Still, others are on the initial stage in their promotion of environmental awareness regarding the disadvantages of plastic bags.<br />
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Among countries in Africa that have relatively attained success in their promotion of alternatives to plastic bags are Botswana, Eritrea, Somalia, and Zanzibar. In Botswana, the ban on plastic shopping bags since 2006 requires shoppers to provide their own shopping bags or pay for thicker recyclable bags. In Eritrea, the ban on plastic bags has been implemented since 2005. Reports indicate high compliance due to the fine being imposed on establishments issuing plastic bags. Meantime, individuals carrying plastic bags are apprehended in streets to inform authorities where they got the plastic bag from. Similarly, in Somalia, authorities have banned the use of plastic bags since 2005, and consequently encouraged people to use alternatives like sacks made of straws and reeds. The same has been implemented in Zanzibar since 2006. The government has imposed a ban on the production and import of plastic bags to stop its use.<br />
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In Australia, there has been a remarkable decrease in the use of plastic bags from 6 billion to 3.9 billion in 2007. This accounts for a 41 decrease in the use of plastic bags from the previous year. At present, the government is considering a total ban or levy on plastic bags.<br />
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Among countries in Asia, Nepal has probably the most outstanding program for the ban of plastic bags and bottles. The ban, which started in 1999 within the Mt. Everest region, has spread in other parts of the country including Tupche where fines of up to 25 rupees are currently being implemented to ensure a plastic-free zone. Second to Nepal is Bangladesh with its total ban on plastic bags since 2002 after findings that the main cause of heavy floods in 1988 and 1998 in Dhaka was the plastic that clogged the citys main drainage. Next to Bangladesh is Taiwan, which started the ban on free single use plastic bags in all places since 2001 despite manufacturers protests.<br />
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The efforts that the abovementioned countries have done to promote a sustainable environment may be remarkable yet many countries are still lax in their treatment of the issue. Others are left behind in the initial process of educating their citizens on the negative effects of plastics in the environment. These countries include Riwanda, Hong Kong, India, Tanzania, Pakistan, Singapore, Japan and New Zealand. Moreover, most efforts known are geared at most towards reduction of plastic bag use and not the total ban of plastic packaging. In this regard, other plastic waste management options such as recycling processes should be in place.<br />
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3.2 Recycling and Reusing Plastic Waste<br />
One common form of plastic waste management that has been done across the globe is recycling. Recycling comes in different forms, including the Cradle to Cradle (C2C) process. C2C is a term coined by Walter Stahel in the 1970s to mean a sustainable ecosystem despite industrial production and consumption. In the field of plastic waste management, C2C means recycling an item to its original form for continuous use. This recycling process is the most ideal as it prevents plastic materials from occupying space in landfills and leaving toxic substances in the environment. However, C2C is not applicable at all times and on every plastic material. In addition, recycling plastics has harmful effects to the environment (Lea 1996), and presents problems related to collection, sorting and reuse.<br />
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Plastic waste collection alone proves to be difficult. People especially those in remote areas lack information on the harmful effects of plastic thus discard plastics almost everywhere, even in seas and forests. As the CUA Progress report shows, farm and aquatic animals in some countries suffer from peoples lack of environmental education and continuous neglect of the environment.<br />
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After collection, another problem that comes along is sorting. Sorting plastic wastes is needed to ensure recyclability. There are different types of plastic manufactured according to use. The following table illustrates the different types of plastic and their use.<br />
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Table 1. Types of Plastic and Their Uses<br />
PETPolyethylene terephthalate fizzy drink bottles and oven-ready meal traysHDPEHigh-density polyethylene bottles for milk and washing up liquidPVCPolyvinyl chloride food trays, cling film, bottles for squash, mineral water and shampoo LDPELow density polyethylene carrier bags and bin liners PPPolypropylene margarine tubes, microwavable meal traysPSPolysterene yoghurt cups, foam meat or fish trays, hamburger boxes or egg cartons, vending cups, plastic cutlery, protective packaging for electronic goods and toysOtherOther types that do not fall into the categories above such as melamine, which is usually used to make plates and cups<br />
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Source Waste Online httpwww.wasteonline.org.ukresourcesInformationSheetsPlastics.htm<br />
A good recycling system is one that sorts out plastics according to their types. To give way to this, authorities should maintain a systematic and efficient sorting system, one that will facilitate the recycling job. Commonly, sorting of plastics is done manually, but trends now include automated systems. Ahab, Escarino, Mustafa Basri (2006) propose an automatic sorting system for recycling plastics. This system ensures efficiency in sorting plastic products before submission to a recycling facility. Meanwhile, Scott (2004) proposes a simple device for automated sorting of post-consumer plastic waste. This device uses a simple and cost-efficient two-colour fixed filter near-infrared spectrometer with a simple ratio circuit. The proposed method is effective in sorting of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride, and is recommended for recycling plants with minimal financial resources.<br />
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Moreover, Siddiqui, Gondal Redwhi (2008) propose identification of different types of polymer in post-consumer plastics using IR, S-ray diffraction, differential scanning, calorimetric and laser. The technique was found to be successful in identifying six types of plastic namely, LDPE, HDPE, Polypropylenes (PP), Polystyrene (PS), Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Furthermore, Genti, Menendez, Torano Diego (2009) suggest the use of cylinder for the reduction of polystyrene plastics to improve segregation and pre-concentration during recycling. The investigators used cylindronomial and cylindercal cyclone-type media separators, which proved to be efficient. This study contributes to the body of literature that promotes automated sorting for heavy bulk of industrial plastic wastes.<br />
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Although incineration options are quite obsolete, studies relating to it may be relevant to help promote recycling. In this view, they are worth mentioning in this paper. These studies provide a lead to overcoming recycling issues and suggesting other possible means to reuse plastic waste.<br />
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One relevant study conducted by Lea (1996) investigated which between recycling and plastic incineration is a better option for energy and landfill cost savings. The study found that while recycling is a more safe option than incineration, it can only be accomplished through waste-to energy conversion, thus requiring higher costs.<br />
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Agamuthu Faizura (2005) investigated the biodegradability of polyethylene and pro-oxidant additive-based environmentally degradable plastics. The results show 8 plastic weight loss and oxidation. Variation in the biodegradability of plastic samples depended on their types (ie, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) ad high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Both samples showed reduction by 20.<br />
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On the issue of recycling or reuse, the literature provides a wealth of trends in recycling means and processes to help reduce plastic waste across the globe. One common factor among these latest trends is the aim to reuse the composition of plastic through chemical change. Doing this will not only reduce the amount of plastic waste to be incinerated in landfills but also maximise the use of plastics.<br />
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One example is a study conducted by Aznar, Caballero, Sancho Frances (2005 p.409), which proposes plastic waste elimination by co-gasification with coal and biomass in fluidised bed air. The result of the experiment is a form of gas composed mainly of 15 hydrogen and lower tar content, which may then be used for other purposes. Meanwhile, Achilias, Anatokou, Roupakias, Megalokonomos Lappas (2007) explored on a novel recycling technique employing dissolution and pyrolysis. A small gaseous product called hydrocarbon was obtained from polymer, thus presenting hope to recycle the petroleum content in plastic materials.<br />
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In his study, McKenna (2009) illustrates turning plastic into fuel to get rid of waste and generate electricity. The study used biodiesel and not petroleum-based diesel. Five percent polystyrene concentration usually found in Styrofoam increases the rate of power output yet 15 makes it too thick, causing the injection pump to overheat. Importantly, it should be noted that the percentage of polystyrene added to the biodiesel affects its performance. Also , the technique works in biodiesel and not in petroleum-based diesel.<br />
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One notable study conducted by Pol Thiyagarajan (2010) converted HDPE and LDPE into multi-walled carbon nanotubes for use in lithium-ion batteries. Plastic wastes were remediated in a closed system using catalyst at 700 C under 1000 PSI autogenic pressure. The technique diverts from previous experiments with the amount of heat applied. In another study, Pol (2010) converted waste plastics HDPE, LDPE, polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) into paramagnetic, conducting, solid pure carbon microspheres. The experiment resulted in dry pure powder CMS, which may be used for toners, printers, paints, batteries, lubricants and tyres.<br />
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In Rebeiz, Fowler Paul (1991 1993), it was found that the PET obtained from beverage bottles can be utilised to produce unsaturated polyester resins. Notably, the resins taken from plastic waste are comparable to virgin materials, and can be used for construction materials such as bridges, walls, portland cement concretes and floor overlays. Generated from recycled materials, they are more cost-efficient and practical as they help alleviate environmental problems.<br />
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Another novel technique developed by Yesilata, Isiker Turgut (2009) tested the insulation property of ordinary concrete enhanced by adding polymeric-based waste material. PET bottles and some tyre pieces were shredded and added into ordinary concrete. Results showed that proper use of the two waste materials significantly reduced heat loss or improved thermal insulation, implying the recyclability of both PET bottles and tyres.<br />
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Evidently, the recent trends in recycling are mostly geared towards making better use of plastic waste or what Pol (2010) refers to as upcycling. Turning waste into carbon nanotubes, and enhancing elements for fuel and construction materials give us a hope that more and more novel ways for plastic waste management will be discovered in the next years to come.<br />
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4. Conclusion<br />
The adverse effects of plastic waste both on the environment and human life impose an even more challenging plastic waste management that promotes reduction, recycling and reuse of post-consumer plastics and scraps from the industrial sector. Considering the enormous amount of plastic waste already infiltrated into landfills, oceans and ecosystems, the need for a more considerate, efficient and advance plastic waste management has become more urgent than before. <br />
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The challenge starts with consumers in their use of plastic materials especially plastic bags. Consumers have a say in what material retailers or manufacturers should use in packaging their products. It is rational to believe that should consumers totally boycott or decline the use of plastic bags or non-recyclable materials in the products they buy, manufacturers will likewise stop using plastic packaging. Given this, consumers should decide not to buy products in plastics or refuse to use plastic bags but transport their goods using alternatives such as reed sacks, cloths, and other reusable and biodegradable materials.<br />
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In a case study conducted in the UK by Closed Loop London (WRAP n.d.), participating companies realised consumers concern on the impact of plastic packaging to the environment. The study gathered feedbacks from Coca-cola, Marks Spencer, and Boots customers, and consequently found out that 78 are more inclined to buy products in recyclable plastic packaging. Meanwhile, 90 advised retailers to use packaging made of recycled materials as much as possible. The results of this study imply the power of consumers to change the way manufacturers deliver their goods. At the least, plastic bags in whatever form or thickness should be totally banned in order to save on fuel, avoid clogging of drainage, and save human life and environmental resources by preventing greenhouse gas effect that such materials bring.<br />
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Realistically, other forms of plastic cannot be totally discarded for their specific use and advantages but with good management, wastes from plastic materials do not have to be an environment nuisance. All that is needed is a good plastic waste management in order to ensure proper collection, sorting, and recycling. The recent trends in recycling and reuse of plastics promise a better picture in the field. Research studies that aim to make use of post-consumer plastics for the manufacture of other products adhere to the idea of C2C, and show tremendous advancement in science and technology. The efforts that experimenters of these studies devote should be well-applauded and supported through funding by the government and other related agencies.<br />
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More than anything, the challenge to all is to be informed of effective plastic management practices in order to save every living creature. Educating the public concerning the impacts of plastic grocery bags and other non-recyclable plastics is one significant program every government, whether national or local, should embrace. However, it is sad to note that many governments have chosen the route of taxes or levies on plastic bags to retain economic means, further implying giving more importance on profit and consumerism rather than safety and protection for all.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-19264862618444024232017-02-23T00:27:00.001-08:002017-02-23T00:27:30.535-08:00Air pollutionAir pollution refers to the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter or biological substances that cause harm or discomfort to human beings, other living organisms and the natural environment into the atmosphere. Air pollution mainly arises from solid particles and chemicals. It may arise from natural processes that impact the atmosphere such as volcanoes, biological decay and dust storms. There are two types of air pollution primary and secondary pollution. The former happens when pollution occurs directly in the air, for example through smoke and car exhaust fumes while the later forms in the air when chemical reactions change the primary pollutants. An example of secondary pollution is the formation of tropospheric ozone. Since the atmosphere is a complex, dynamic and fragile system, there is a growing concern about the global effects of air pollution especially in matters regarding climate change (Ward 2006, p.1).<br />
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There are two major sources of air pollution which are classified into two major categories anthropogenic sources and natural sources. The anthropogenic sources are those caused by human activities and they are mostly related to the burning of different kinds of fuel. Examples of such sources include smoke stacks from power plants, factories and waste incinerators. On the other hand, natural sources of air pollution are those that dont result from human activities and they include dust from large areas of land, methane emitted by digestion of food by animals, sulphur and chlorine that is produced by volcanic activities (Dade 1997, p. 71).<br />
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Total suspended particulates (TSPs) refer to the total number of particles of solid or liquid matter that are found in a sample of ambient air. Examples include soot, dust, aerosols and fumes. The TSPs are usually less than 100 micrometers and they constantly enter the atmosphere from various sources. There are two sources of total suspended particulates the human sources and the natural sources. The human sources (anthropogenic) include motor vehicle use, combustion products from space heating, industrial processes and power generation. The natural sources of TSPs are soil, bacteria, viruses, fungi, moulds, yeast, pollen and salt particles from evaporating sea water.<br />
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Total suspended particulates are known to be associated with some health effects and over 99 of the inhaled particulate matter is either exhaled or trapped in the upper areas of the respiratory system after which it is expelled. The remaining particulates enter the windpipe and the lungs where some particulates known as inhalable particulates, cling to the protective mucous and are removed from the body. Mechanisms like coughing also filter out or remove the total suspended particulates and collectively, these pulmonary clearance mechanisms protect the lungs from the majority of the inhalable particles. Some of the smallest particles called the respirable particles can lodge in the lung capillaries and the alveoli to cause the following health effects<br />
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(i)Slow down the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood hence causing shortness of breath (ii) Straining of the heart because it has to work extra hard to compensate for the oxygen loss.<br />
The most susceptible people to these conditions are those with heart problems, respiratory diseases like emphysema, bronchitis and asthma. The adverse health effects that result from exposure to particulate matter are not noticed immediately after the encounter. Therefore, particulates can accumulate in the lungs after repeated, long term exposure causing respiratory distress and other health problems. The ambient air standard qualities for total suspended particulates are PM 10(150mgm3) -2.5(15ugm3) yearly mean and 65ugm3 over 24 hours by US EPA, PM25 (10ugm3) annual mean and 25ugm3 by WHO (NRC 1998, p.61). <br />
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Heavy metals refer to metals with a specific gravity which is greater than about 5.0 and is poisonous. Examples of heavy metals include lead and mercury. Excessive levels of heavy metals are hazardous to man, plants and animals hence its important to regulate their levels in waste application sites. Zinc is an essential trace mineral which occurs in greater amounts than any other trace mineral except iron. The best natural sources of Zinc include oysters, meats, wheat germ, hard cheese, poultry, spinach and eggs among others. The anthropogenic sources of Zinc are greater than the natural sources and the most important anthropogenic source comes from discharges that come from smelter slags and wastes. When zinc is taken at doses of 20mg and above, its more likely to cause stomach upsets and nausea hence it should always be taken with regulated amounts of food. Long-term zinc supplementation above 50mg has been shown to increase total cholesterol due to an induced copper deficiency. Similarly, large doses of zinc may also promote folate deficiency (Selim 2009, p. 109). The ambient air standard quality for zinc by the European commission is 5ngm-3. Little data is available on the standards of zinc in air from EPA, WHO and UK.<br />
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Iron is a heavy and ductile metallic element which is silver white in pure form but readily rusts. Iron can exist in as soluble ferrous iron found in ground water or as relatively insoluble ferric form found in water. The primary natural sources of iron are the natural geologic sources. The anthropogenic sources of iron include industrial and municipal waste products, agricultural run off eroded from sediments and atmospheric deposition. Although iron is an essential mineral for human health in small concentrations, intake of high doses may cause conjunctivitis, choroiditis and renitis if it remains in the tissues. In addition, chronic inhalation of excessive concentrations of iron oxide fumes may result in the development of benign pneumoconiosis (Morton 2000, p.7). There is no available data on the ambient air quality standards form US EPA, WHO, EC and UK.<br />
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Benzene is a colourless liquid hydrocarbon that is highly inflammable, carcinogenic and the simplest aromatic compound. Benzene is derived from petroleum and is used in the manufacturing of a wide variety of chemical products including DDT, detergents and insecticides. The natural sources of benzene are gas emissions from volcanoes and forest fires while the major anthropogenic sources of benzene include automobile exhaust point-source emissions from petroleum refineries and fugitive emissions. Exposure to very high levels of benzene can expose an individual to harmful health effects. High levels of benzene can result in death and lower levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches and unconsciousness. Benzene also causes problems in the blood and those who breathe benzene for longer periods experience harmful effects in the tissues that form blood cells especially the bone marrow. The ambient air standard qualities for benzene are 25ppm by WHO, 16.25 ugm-3 annually from UK and PM10 limit value from the European commission (Sao 2005, p. 1517). There is no available data about the ambient air quality standard provided by the US EPA<br />
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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemicals found naturally in coal, crude oil and gasoline. PAHs are found through out the environment in the air, water and soil and they can remain in the environment for months or years. The natural sources of PAHs are usually fires, volcanic eruptions and thermal geological reactions and the anthropogenic sources include industrial processes, transportation, burning, waste incineration and drilling operations. The possible long-term health effects caused by PAHs include cataracts, kidney and liver damage and jaundice. Repeated skin contact with PAH naphthalene can cause skin redness and irritation. Its not clear whether exposure to PAHs can lead to short-term health effects.<br />
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The ambient air standard qualities for PAHs are 0.25 ngm -3 annually by UK and 1.0 ngm-3 annually by European community, 1.0ngm-3 by WHO (Leo 2007, p. 581).There is no available data about the ambient air quality standard provided by the US EPA.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-90554038617321309912017-02-23T00:26:00.001-08:002017-02-23T00:26:45.878-08:00Climate changes Climate change<br />
Energy development focuses on providing enough energy to fulfill the demand and reduce environmental pollution. Many activities within the society nowadays depend on energy for their smooth processes. Energy is the backbone of every process within the organizations and the transport sector, manufacturing and other government sectors depend on energy for their efficient operation.<br />
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Wind power<br />
The traditional energy production methods have caused greater effects on the environment and climatic changes. Heating and ventilation involved in energy production causes rise in the environmental temperature (Burton et al, 2001). This therefore calls for the adoption of alternative energy that has little or no impact on the prevailing environmental conditions. This type of energy uses the power of the environmental wind to rotate the wind turbines. The rotation of the turbines causes the propulsion of the magnates and in the process producing electricity. Wind power is very effective when properly harnessed.<br />
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Advantages<br />
Wind power reduces the environmental pollution by greater magnitudes because there are no chemicals given out as by-products (Burton et al, 2001). This is because the process of wind power generation does not involve any chemical activity or process. By using wind power, global warming is eliminated since there are no greenhouse gases produced during the process. Wind power also has an advantage of being a renewable source of energy hence it cannot be depleted.<br />
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Drawbacks<br />
The strength of wind blowing at any given time is varying hence it is not a very reliable source of energy (Burton et al, 2001). The lower the strength the lesser the amount of energy produced. Wind farms have also been discovered to cause insecurity since they are likely to block radar coverage and communications and negatively affects weather forecasting. The wind turbines also pose insecurity to the birds and consequently affect their migration patterns.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-45158711328662381192017-02-23T00:21:00.001-08:002017-02-23T00:21:30.307-08:00The Report ProcedureThis report is prepared on the basis of the analysis carried out on River Basin Management. It takes into account the overall importance of river basins in the human life. In particular, the report considers the socio-economic benefits of river basins human activities and how they interfere with its management and well-being. This report will also establish the appropriate measures that need to be undertaken to safeguard and promote river basin management. As such, several realities of river basins will be considered, for instance, Mississippi River Basin et cetera.<br />
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River Basin Management<br />
The major management concerns revolves includes the following the supervision of precipitation, the quantity and quality of surface groundwater, and sediment erosion, load, and transport procedures, the stabilization of the channels, flood risks evaluations, and food control. One of the recognized models of international river basin management is Senegal River Basin Development Authority.<br />
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It is important to note that river basins are multifaceted systems, where water is tapped in through from a catchment from rivers, lakes and groundwater this flow is always geared towards estuaries and lastly the sea (Griffiths 2002). Notably, the activities that take place in the river basin can have adverse consequences on the status of water and its ecology. Furthermore, these adverse effects extend to regional, social, environmental, and economic realms. Later in the subsequent chapters, we shall look at some of the benefits of river basins, not excluding their disadvantages in the universe.<br />
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Management operations and practices are not meant for only a single water use or a unilateral population segment or a single sector. Such practices may disturb other uses, populations and sectors (Lee Dinar 1996). I concur with Lee and Dinar simply because river basins in themselves have a universal significance to all life in the universe. I also believe that all fundamental components need to be incorporated in the planning process for the water sources and their catchments. I realize that there are some elements in the world that cannot be a part of personalized wealth. Yes, one can own a personal car or a personal house or a personal company, just name it. But, one cannot talk of a personal river basin, for instance, Mississippi River Basin remains a national heritage and it should never be under the control of a sole proprietor. This is why this approach is referred to as Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM).<br />
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Therefore, we need to define Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM). It is that organizational procedure that aims at coordinating conservation, management and development of water land and other resources connected to them insofar as there are sectors within a given river basin. These organizational procedures aim at maximizing the economic and social benefits that proceed from water resources which ought to benefit every one equally while conserving and, where obligatory, restoring freshwater ecosystems (Global Water Partnership 2000). I realize that a lot of social and economic benefits are attached to river basins management. It is very easy to think that a number of natural resources in the world are not valuable at all. I am challenged because all along I did not bother to see the value of river basins. It is a pity that I have regarded a swimming pool as valuable to me and failed to pay attention to natural water catchment areas. <br />
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The principal objective of the Integrated River Basin Management is to put in place a balance between the present natural functions of the river system and the improved aspects of the system. The course of action taken by the management must always meet the expectations of the society especially for industrial use, recreation, natural management and agriculture. <br />
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Benefits of River Basins in the World<br />
Here, we shall explore the socio-economic benefits of the river basins in the society. We shall also familiarize ourselves with some of the river basins in the world and how they benefit their community.<br />
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In a bid to explore the socio-economic benefits of river basins I think it is good to look at some examples of river basins in parts of Africa. Actually, I realize that river basins are present in most countries. I have no doubt that their significance are so important that no country can afford to lack one. By the way, river basins are naturally established they are not a human investment or creation.<br />
In order to have a sustainable usage of the worlds freshwater resources, it is imperative that socio-economic and hydro-environmental systems be regarded as mutually dependent. Notably, in Africa, the United Nations fosters these principles through supporting countries set up a framework for integrated management and fortification of transboundary watercourses essential to national development.<br />
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In my report findings, I learnt that the Okavango River Basin is shared by three nations namely Angola, Botswana, and Namibia. I learn that the basin straddles sub-humid climatic zones in Angola through semi-arid to arid climatic zones as found in northern Namibia and Botswana whose freshwater sources are scarce.<br />
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Indeed, the Okavango River Basin still remains one of the least human impacted basins all over the African continent. It is argued and justifiably so that Angola, Botswana, and Namibia will change its present stature if mounting of socio-economic pressures on the basin in the riparian countries takes place. I learn that this may in the long term, lead to irretrievable environmental breakdown and subsequent loss of domestic and global benefits. <br />
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I also gain insight from my report findings that the United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs (UNDESA) is doing any thing it can to assist the riparian countries uphold these benefits which also demands agreement with respect to the sharing of both the benefits and associated liabilities this includes those of an environmental and ecological nature. This agreement is effected through joint management of the basins water resources. In this regard, the UNDESA is providing support to the Permanent Okavango River Basin Commission (OKACOM).<br />
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This agreement was effected under the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourse System together with the 1997 UN Convention on the policy of the non-navigational uses of international watercourses. The OKAKOM deal enables the riparian countries to work toward the execution of an Integrated Management Plan (IMP) for the basin on the basis of an Environmental Assessment (EA).<br />
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It is reported that the Okavango drains into the Kalahari Desert as an alluvial fun, widely referred to as the Okavango Delta which serves as a national wetland reserve.<br />
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Let us now turn to Mississippi River Basin which happens to be the longest and largest river with respect to discharge. I learn that the Mississippi River Basin covers more than 40 of the US land area. The drainage basin of Mississippi River is the worlds second largest, draining 4.76 million square kilometers, together with tributaries from thirty two US states and two Canadian provinces. Its watershed covers 40 of the contiguous United States whereas the chief tributaries comprise Missouri, Ohio, Arkansas, and Tennessee (Wiener 1984).<br />
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The Mississippi River Basin has got a number of benefits to the people of the basin. I discover that populations of over 18 million people depend on it for water supply the communities use it to discharge industrial and municipal wastes but as prescribed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Midwestern farmers use it to ship grains to world markets. I must say that I am amazed to discover that 60 of U.S. grain exports are shipped via the Mississippi. Again, the river generates approximately 2 million yearly from commercial fishing and more than 1 billion from Upper Mississippi recreation alone (Theiling 1995).<br />
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In my report findings I learnt that Malaysia as a whole is full of water bodies. It is estimated that there are more than 100 river systems in Peninsular Malaysia and over 50 river systems in Sabah and Sarawak. These river systems are estimated to contribute roughly 97 of the raw water supply source. It has been noted that growth in population enjoined with rapid agricultural and industrial development is endangering the availability of sufficient water resources in a bid to meet the increasing water demand. This is becoming a pressing issue to the community. Pollution of river basins has also been a major issue. In the year 2006, only seven of Malaysias river basins were categorized as polluted. (See Appendix. A).bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-51438523104568745612017-02-23T00:20:00.000-08:002017-02-23T00:20:32.119-08:00Global warmingOpposing views about global warming<br />
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Global warming is the rise in earths surface temperatures. This rise in temperatures is linked to the increased concentrations of green house gases brought about by human activities such as burning of fossil fuel together with cutting down trees. An increase in temperature will have an effect on the level of sea altering the quantity and pattern of rainfall. It may also lead to spread of deserts and changes in weather conditions which will affect agricultural yield and also different species of animals which could be faced with danger of being extinct.<br />
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Although global warming has been greatly blamed on human activities, other scientists do not believe that its the case. They believe that global warming is not occurring and that the change in temperatures is a cycle. Satellite data indicates that there was a rise in the worlds temperature between 1680 and 1940 but it started cooling since that time until 1980 (Weart,2003). The situation reversed in the 1990s in which temperatures again started rising leading to the current global warming. Controversy arises on the cause of these climatic changes in temperature although to some, they view it as a cycle that is being repeated with trends indicating a possible cooling in the global temperature (Allen, Seaman Delascio, 2009). <br />
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Accuracy of IPCC (international panel on climate change) climate projections<br />
According to Paterson (1996), IPCC projected that there has been a rise in surface temperature by an average of 0.6oc since the start of 19th century and that an increase of 0.17 is expected per decade for the coming 30 years. It also indicated that most of the global warming that has been experienced for the last 50 years can be linked to human activities. These activities include greenhouse gas emissions, methane and also carbon dioxide emission. According to their report, it indicates that temperature increases will continue if greenhouse gas emission is not stopped (Bertagna, 2006).<br />
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The temperature rise is estimated to have increased by between 1.4o C and 5.8oC as from 1900 to 2010. This temperature increases have also brought about extreme weather conditions and increases in sea levels by 9 to 88 centimeters. Other scientists feel that it is unlikely for IPCC to accurately project changes that are expected to occur in the coming century. Richard Lindzen an atmospheric science professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology agrees that the global temperature has risen by 0.5oC than what it was in the last century. He also acknowledges that there has been an increase in the levels of CO2 in the two centuries that have passed. He also appreciates that CO2 is a greenhouse gas whose increase could definitely bring about global warming. But he goes ahead to disagree with the IPCC findings because the team cannot confidently prove that past climatic changes were as a result of CO2 increases and they cannot base their future expectations of climatic changes on the CO2 levels (Johansen, 2002).<br />
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Garth Paltridge, a retired research scientist believes that burning of fossil fuel has a consequence of increasing the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere but he is not certain that that could lead to significant increase in carbon dioxide levels. Antonino Zichichi a professor of nuclear physics argues that the models that were used by the IPCC are not coherent and cannot be valid scientifically. This is because its not possible to rule out that the phenomenon observed could not have resulted from natural causes and that human beings could be having nothing to do with them.<br />
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Global warming a natural process. <br />
Some scientists argue that global warming cannot be attributed to human activities such as emission of greenhouse gases. It occurs as a result of high and lengthy levels of radiations produced from the sun which heat greenhouse gases making them lighter due to expansion (Bertagna, 2006).<br />
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Because of this, they rise to the atmosphere but end up releasing the absorbed heat away bringing about the greenhouse effect. Ian clerk, a professor in the department of earth science thinks that a section of scientist who link global warming to carbon dioxide base their argument on the assumption that an increase in the atmospheric CO2 activates accumulation of large amounts of moisture in the atmosphere which in return bring about warmth. CO2 is a minor greenhouse gas and it cannot be expected to bring about large changes as suggested (Schroeder, 2009). Again, the mechanism has never been scientifically tested hence they rely on the mathematical that foresee a wide warming. This model can be challenged by the density of crowd formation that brings about a cooling effect (Allen, Seaman Delascio, 2009).<br />
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The fact that there is evidence that there is global warming, it does not make it automatic that it is as a result of carbon dioxide. Because there are natural causes that cause global warming, to indicate carbon dioxide to be the cause of global warming, you need to come up with evidence that will help differentiate between warming due to human causes and the one that result from natural causes something which has not yet been done. Contribution by human beings to global warming can be perceived to be negligible because when doing comparison between trends in temperature of the atmosphere and the surface temperature, it does not bring out the characteristic fingerprint which is linked to greenhouse effect. Therefore, increases in CO2 and other greenhouse gases could be perceived to be having a little impact on the global warming (Uzawa, 2003).<br />
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According to William Gray, a professor in the department of atmospheric science in Colorado state university, global warming can also be attributed to alterations in global ocean currents, a phenomenon brought about by variations in ocean salinity. Because variations in global temperatures in the past could not or were not attributed to CO2, recent changes cannot so much be attributed to the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere (Dolan, 2006).<br />
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The atmosphere is said to have remained in the same state it was in 280 million years ago. It is also reported that cycles of temperature changes have existed long before the human activities that they are claiming to have brought carbon happened. A good example is the Cretaceous period that was recorded in history to have been the warmest. About 450 million years ago, its recorded that there were more carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere than they are currently. During that period, the planet went through the coldest period. Based on the evidence, one cannot conclude that the small increases in the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere could be as a result of CO2 levels.<br />
The cause of global warming is unknown.<br />
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According to Johansen (2002), it is not possible to point out any major cause of the current global warming the way IPCC did. Their conclusion is perceived to be flawed without basis. This is because they did not find evidence to prove that the present warming is a result of increased levels of carbon dioxide. Different factors that contribute to green house effect such as natural causes should also have been taken into consideration before drawing their conclusion that implicates human activities as major contributors to global warming (Mendelsohn, 1999).<br />
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There are other parameters that are perceived to have more effect than that of carbon dioxide. Effects such as water cycles, different types of cloud formation and also the effect of industrial and agricultural dust have much greater effect. Greenhouse effect that has taken place for the last 150 years has been poorly controlled as a result there is no clear distinction between natural or human causes. There is no sufficient basis that can be used to foresee climatic changes that are likely to occur in future and the extent they are likely to affect the globe (Michaels, 2004).<br />
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Global warming and its significance<br />
Even if global warming may take place in future, its effects are not likely to be as harmful as predicted. This is because of the benefits that it is likely to have on global plant productivity. They include a boost in food, fiber and also timber production. This will ensure constant supply of food, shelter together with clothing. Warmth has been found to have a positive impact on health while carbon dioxide is used with plants for synthesis of food with an overall effect on the crop yields (Cline, 1992).<br />
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The causes of global warming have not been well understood despite the numerous reports indicating carbon dioxide to be the major source. In trying to find the cause, its important that both human and natural factors be put into consideration before a conclusion is reached. Scientific evidence should also be provided that should be able to stand numerous tests. Because of this, one cannot conclude that its human activities that have led to global warming as there is no substantial evidence to prove this. Positive aspects of global warming should also be spoken out to avoid biasness.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-48379964704450215212017-02-23T00:19:00.000-08:002017-02-23T00:19:25.285-08:00Chinas Three Gorges Dam and the Environmental Management Approach in Its Construction1. Introduction<br />
Spanning the Yangtze River at Sandouping, Yichang, Hubei province, China, the Three Gorges Dam is the worlds largest hydroelectric dam. The dams construction began in 1993 and began filling on the 1st of June, 2003 although the structural work was completed nine months before schedule, on May, 20th, 2006. Following the installation of 26 generators after the year 2006, the dam is now fully operational. The major 20th century project drew extensive controversy over the costs and benefits. Analysts indicates that although there exists multiple potential benefits from hydroelectric power and flood control, the future of millions of people displaced by rising waters and those who live in the dams environs remains uncertain, furthermore critics affirm that valuable cultural and archeological sites were lost during the project. Environmental impacts also remain a critical source of contention arising from the projects construction.<br />
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Chinas Conservation Ethic (Add Something)<br />
Johannes (1994) defines conservation ethic as the awareness of ones ability to deplete or otherwise damage natural resources, coupled with a commitment to reduce or eliminate the problem. As a matter of government policy, the Chinese government stipulates that any projects within its territorial boundaries must be governed by a spirit of responsibility and pride to advance the betterment of the world while at the same time keeping strictly to ethics and morals. b. Thesis Statement<br />
The enormous scale of construction and the projection of the dam that sets a mark in human history undoubtedly deserve attention and administration. However, the social, economic and environmental ramification through the construction raises concerns over the management of the projects aftermath.<br />
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2. Key Facts and Figures<br />
a. History<br />
Building of the dam for the purposes of power generation on the yangtze River was fist proposed by Sun Yat-sen in 1919 and the first survey of the proposed site undertaken by the National Defense Planning Commission under the Kuomintang. Following the survey and due to unfavorable economic and political conditions, the idea was shelved until a series of major floods resurrected it leading to its formal adoption by the Peoples Republic of China in 1954. Due to the dual functions of power generation and floods control the idea was reconsidered in 1963 although it was sidetracked following the cultural revolution of 1966 with fears that the Soviet Union could sabotage it.<br />
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According to Jianguo, Jianhui, Xingguo, Zongqiang, Xianming, following economic reforms introduced in 1978, the Chinese government established the need for more electric power within the countrys national grid prompting the State Council to approve the dams construction in 1979. A feasibility study conducted in 1982 and 1983 made critics who had earlier on complained that the project did not adequately address environmental, social and technical issue, appeased.<br />
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Furthermore, the Canadian International Project Managers Yangtze Joint Venture which was a consortium of five Canadian International Project Managers conducted further feasibility studies proposing that the proposed Dams height be increased. Although a new feasibility study was conducted in 1986, the project was stopped for five years in 1989 following heavy criticism from environmentalists on the perceived adverse environmental costs and effects. This was also prompted by much domestic and international pressure for example, much opposition was evident in the infamous Tiananmen Square incident after which the Chinese government illegalized any public debate on the dam, imprisoned Dai Qing who was a notable critic of the project and blamed foreign critics for intending to undermine the progress initiated by the regime. In 1992, the project was passed by the National Peoples Congress, resettlement began immediately and the construction started in 1994.<br />
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Critics have noted that the project was shoddy, marred by corruption and poor resource allocation. Research also indicate that international engineers had violated their ethical and professional codes which made it mandatory for them to be realistic and rational when preparing statements, reports, testimonies and estimates. They have therefore been accused of negligence, incompetence and professional misconduct. Hanying and Qun affirms that to show dissatisfaction with the project, a team of 53 engineers petitioned President Zemin Jiang to delay the filling of reservoir until sedimentation was resolved. On completion on the October, 30th, 2008, the dam remains the worlds largest electricity generating plant. <br />
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b. Facts Statistics<br />
The project overtook Syncrude Tailings dam in Canada as the largest by volume, the Rogun Dam in Tajikistan as the tallest and the Itaipu Dam situated on the Paraguay and Brazil border as the largest hydroelectric plant. The Dam has over 34 generators and consists of a 610 foot high wall running 1.3 mile from bank to bank. The reservoir extends 360 miles up river Chongqing and is estimated to have energy production capacity equivalent to over 15 nuclear plants. Varied cost estimates have been presented with Samuel, Holland and Grove putting the cost at 30, 27 and 24 Billion respectively.<br />
Jianguo, Jianhui, Xingguo, Zongqiang, Xianming affirm that although its original budget was 25 billion, the project is thought of to have been the most expensive single construction project in Chinese construction industry and may probably have cost over US 75 billion. Hanying and Qun estimates that over 1,600 abandoned mines and factories were submerged and over 700 million tons of sediment are deposited annually into the river. An estimated 360 million people live within the watershed of the Yangtze river hence should the dam collapse, millions of people who live downstream are endangered.<br />
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3. Benefits<br />
a. Functions Benefits i. Economic Benefits<br />
The dam is expected to have considerable economic benefits for years to come. It is estimated that the dam supplies between 4 and 6 of Chinas electricity needs thereby increasing supply to meet the rising demand in the countrys national transmission grid. It is estimated that the dams power generating capacity from its 26,700 megawatt turbine generator will be equivalent to the burning of 40 millions tons of coal or the power generated by 18 nuclear plants.<br />
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The project remains the worlds largest hydroelectric power station with a generating capacity of over twenty six thousand Mega watts Furthermore, the projects supporters have affirmed that the installation of ship locks involved in the project will serve to increase shipping within the river to 50 million tons up from 10 million. It is further estimated that the transportation cost will be cut by between 30 and 37 percent besides supporters affirm that shipping within the region would become safer, unlike the pre-construction period in which the region was notoriously dangerous to navigate.<br />
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ii. Environmental<br />
Key expected benefits as advanced by the its defenders include much cleaner environment since the dam will replace coal burning which china has heavily relied on for decades with much cleaner and more efficient hydroelectric power. The dam is further expected to reduce green house gas emission thereby protecting the ozone layer furthermore supporters note that the dam has none of the radiation hazards associated with nuclear plants. The dam has been hailed for its potential contribution to flood and drought control within the region. Having a 22.1 billion cubic meter reservoirs flood storage capacity, flooding frequency will lessen with experts noting that this will reduce to once in every 100 years up from 1 in every 10 years prior to its construction. <br />
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The reservoirs storage capacity is estimated at 22 square kilometers, a capacity that can effectively control floods. The project is also expected to have a major impact on drought control for example it is believed that the dam discharges its water reserves during the dry seasons of March and December thereby increasing water flow rates into the downstream tributaries. The water is thereafter used for agricultural and industrial purposes furthermore navigation is not interfered with during the dry season. Supporters also affirm that the Asia Pacific region will gain an estimated 6000 square miles of forestry following the construction of the dam. Critics however affirm that there were net losses of up to 13,000 square kilometers of forest as a result of the dams construction. The 1998 floods which devastated the Yangtzes basin were blamed on the depletion of tree cover during the construction of the project.<br />
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iii. Social<br />
There are a number of social benefits that have been ascribed to the Three gorges project. The Chinese government affirmed that the resettlement as a result of the construction would spur growth within the region. The government also affirmed that planned resettlement as a result of the dam would offer an opportunity for more organized settlement.<br />
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a. Problems Costs<br />
The Three Gorges hydroelectric project has been cited as having many environmental and social problems surrounding its construction. Negative view points such as pollution, forced relocation, cultural and environmental loses have been cited.<br />
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i. Environmental<br />
Environmentalists have noted that the massive Yangtze river is slowly becoming a dead river, with massive pollution from industrial wastes being dumped along its banks. Hanying, Mao and Qun, Gao documents that the river is slowly becoming the worlds biggest sewage. It is estimated that in excess of 265 billion gallons of raw sewage are dumped into the river annually, sewage that back up into the reservoir. dam has interfered with the natural beauty of the Yangtze river. According to Fearnside, a number of extremely endangered species have had their habitats either carved into half or completely destroyed.<br />
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The habitats of extremely endangered species such as the Chinese Paddlefish, the Siberian Crane and the Yangtze River Dolphin have also been destroyed by the project. Many species of fish and foul are threatened with extinction. Environmentalists also affirm that the dam has forever changed the hydrology of the river which spans thousands of miles. The project is believed to have destroyed fish stocks and cut water supplies to the complex floodplain agricultural system thereby interfering with the livelihood of over 75 million people who have farmed and fished along the banks of river Yangtz. Geologists have also noted that the Three Gorges Dam is a disaster waiting to happen as it is located near seismic fault lines.<br />
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Critics further affirm that such a massive dam could increase seismic activity within the region furthermore they note that its construction is substandard, hence its potential to withstand a major earthquake remains a matter of intense speculation. The dams proximity to some of Chinese most populated areas would make it the worst man made disaster in the history of mankind should it burst. Experts further believe that sediments that have been trapped behind the dam will certainly erode dykes and banks thereby causing flooding. Along the 500 kilometer coastline, lack of sediments will interfere with the mudflats which protect the rising tides hence could lead to flooding.<br />
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ii. Social<br />
The massive project which flooded 600 kilometers along the Yangtze River in both Sichuan and Hubei Provinces displaced between 1.3 and 1.5 million people from towns, villages, farms and cities, a trend that is expected to continue over some time. Based on social concerns, international credit agencies declined to support the project with Canada being the only country that provided export credit funding for the project. The World Bank, the American export Credit agency Ex-Im Bank and other international development agencies declined to support the project citing discrepancy in social and Environmental procedures and guidelines.<br />
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According to Fearnside, that over 1200 towns and villages have been submerged under the rising waters of the dams reservoir furthermore, people have been moved from fertile land to much crappier ones. The project has further been estimated to cover over 1300 known archaeological sites, besides although some were moved, their grandeur, size and design could not be replicated. Experts affirm that archeological sites some of which dates back to 10,000 BC were submerged.<br />
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Critics have also noted that the projects expected flood control benefits have been exaggerated, politically motivated and scientifically unsubstantiated. Millions of people living along the reservoir are threatened by the massive silt load dropped by the fast moving Yangtze river into the slow moving waters of the reservoirs. It is estimated that the river will add 530 million tons of silt into the reservoir annually hence the dams effectiveness in preventing floods will be eroded furthermore Holland and Rawles affirm that sedimentation could increase flooding. Therefore, the mud banks created have potential of causing massive floods hence millions of people who have settled on the flood plains of the yangtze river live in a false sense of security following the risk of floods. The project has also elicited massive national security concerns. Experts argue that any threat to the three Gorges Dam would is adequate to deter Chinese military coercion.<br />
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4. Government Action<br />
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a. Pre-construction<br />
Prior to its construction, the Chinese government promoted the infrastructure as the largest integrated water project ever to be built in the history of the world noting that the project had untold environmental, economic and social benefits. The Chinese government argued that any opposition to the construction of the dam was an obstruction to the worlds most populous nation from joining the developed world. Prior to its construction, the Chinese government involved Canada furthermore the country provided 14 million Canadian Dollars towards conducting a feasibility study on the project with its findings indicating that the project was both economically viable and safe.<br />
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Critics have however noted that China was already determined to complete the project hence Canada was only to determine how to build the dam not whether the project was feasible or not. The government commissioned studies by a number of agencies, commissions and academies for example, considerable research was undertaken by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the State Environmental Protection Agency and other international bodies. The Chinese governments pre-construction efforts also involved the mobilization of resources managing to gain funding from the Three Gorges Dam Fund, Revenue Gezhouba POWER Plan, policy loans from the China Development Bank, Loans from domestic foreign commercial banks, corporate bond and a 12 billion USD from tax on the household electricity.<br />
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b. Post-construction<br />
With the project completed, there has been considerable shift to post-construction management, with management responsibility given to the State Council Three Gorge Project Construction Committee Executive office. The government post construction strategies will include taking care of post settlement needs of the people who were relocated during the construction of the project, geological disaster protection and environmental protection work. According to the committee, post construction plans were developed using an elaborate strategic approach and following a planning phase that lasted two years. Post-construction work is estimated to be 14.48 billion of which 5.59 billion would go to environmental protection. <br />
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5. Conclusion<br />
a. Change of Conservation Ethic<br />
Presently, the dam project is more or less complete it remains a fact that considerable proportion of the countries fisheries, habitats and biological diversity was depleted by the Dam project. It remains the responsibility of the Chinese government to protect the remaining biodiversity from extinction furthermore the government must educate habitats of regions near the dam to implement the four Rs strategies of Reducing, Reusing, Rethinking and Recycle. Massive industrial wastes that are emptied into the dam must be controlled to prevent harm to the common resource water and air quality thereby protecting residents. As a recommendation, the government should study conservation efforts of other regions, mobilize funds and other resources to address the conservation problems arising from the Dams construction.<br />
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b. Sustainable Development Now<br />
Subsequent to the projects completion, the Chinese government must ensure sustainable development by ensuring that the dam not only fulfills human needs but that the government protects the natural environment. The Chinese government has recently called on a more balanced development aimed at how to preserve the natural ecosystem around the dam. Recently, the government called for a green mix growth with Primer Wen Jiabao declaring that more scientific development in Chinese approach to any potential environmental problems arising from the dams construction. Green activists have recommended that the Chinese government seek alternative ways of generating electric power that would be cost effective. They observe that, despite the massive investment, an estimated 25 billion dollars, the project generates only 4 of Chinas electricity. The Chinese government adopted a five year plan in 2006 to improve the use of its energy and natural resources seeking to reduce its energy per GDP by 20.<br />
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Conclusively, the Three Georges Dam in China having been completed together with a vast array of peripheral projects is undoubtedly the largest water supply development project in the history of mankind. True to its size, the project has significant costs and benefits with the most significant benefits being generation of electricity while limiting green gas emission, potential reduction in flood risk and improvement in navigation. The most significant costs remains massive relocation of over 1.3 million Chinese and an extensive ecological degradation of the Yangtze river fisheries and ecosystem, potential inducement of seismicity and a reduction of sedimentation into the East China sea. At present however, we may still not conclusively establish whether the environmeral, social, political and economic benefits outweighs the cost.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-65699332376560511962017-02-23T00:17:00.003-08:002017-02-23T00:17:51.748-08:00Environmental Health and Safety Solid Waste ManagementWaste or trash disposal is done in order to prevent infection from spreading. Health care facilities consider waste disposal as important as ensuring their patients health. Most healthcare wastes are considered more dangerous than any ordinary household trash because of the types that expose humans to graver health risks (Pabico, A. 2007). Trash disposal includes several processes starting from collection, transportation, processing, and recycling. Monitoring of waste materials is also covered to guarantee that it does no harm to human or the environment. There are different procedures in terms of disposing trash. It depends particularly in the type of area urban or rural, developed or developing area, and even industrial or residential. As population increase in a certain area, the amount of waste or trash produced also increases. Now, several reports about waste disposal notify us that it is becoming a concern especially for environmentalists.<br />
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Waste has been categorized into two types. There are biodegradable wastes that can decompose or be broken down by other living organisms such as food waste, manure, and plants. Then there is the non-biodegradable waste that can not be decomposed and remains on the earth for many years such as plastics and tin cans. These wastes come from different sources such as domestic (from household), commercial (from offices like papers, spoiled products, etc.), ashes (burned fossil fuels), biomedical (from health establishments), industrial solid waste, hazardous waste (toxic waste), and sewer.<br />
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Over the years, studies have shown the effects of improper waste on the environment and humans as well. However, the causes of improper trash disposal are really that simple and there is no scientific term that can be used. First, people are not knowledgeable on what types of trash, how to dispose them, and if it affects the world they live in. second reason is that the people are not motivated to push the proper waste disposal or management. This may also due to the fact that communities do not provide seminars or awareness programs for the people to be informed. Communities may not also adapt proper disposal programs which makes the people unmotivated.<br />
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Now, with the growing technology, it is a wonder why trash disposal is still a nuisance to each and every person in a community. The Philippines, as an example, has a population of almost 75 million having the urban area of 57 and a poverty line of 38. Due to this, environmental issues have been a major concern. An environmentalist grouped Philippines environmental issues into 3 parts Brown (pollution from industries and transportation), Green (environmental impacts form deforestation and agriculture, and Blue (all forms of water pollution). Being a tropical country, Philippines is visited by storms all throughout the year. News showed that recent storms (year 2009) have led to massive destruction both in provincial and urban areas. Locals took more than one week just to clean whatever the storm have left and most of these are trash flowed out from rivers and canals.<br />
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In any scale, improper waste disposal can both affect environment and humans. Even pets or animals can be affected. One important factor is the loss of resources. We can not reused these trash to transform it or recycle it, which will led us to make use of virgin or raw materials to produce new products (Leslie, K. 2009). In addition to this, the more virgin the materials are, the more energy is used in creating new products (123HelpMe.com 2010). Another is the release of toxins that can be hazardous to our health (CDC Online, 2005). Along with these, greenhouse gases that affect the atmosphere will also be released. Therefore, global climate change becomes worse.<br />
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Contamination and spread of infection will become frequent and massive if irresponsible disposal will continue. The fight against waste management is not just the governments problem. The participation of every single person in the community they live in will play a big role in making the trash disposal successful. Everyone must become aware on the danger it brings for us to become motivated in contributing to the activity.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-87783622513147717362017-02-23T00:17:00.001-08:002017-02-23T00:17:14.922-08:00Solid Waste ManagementWaste managementis theHYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiWaste_collection o Waste collectioncollection,HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiTransport o Transporttransport,HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiWaste_treatment o Waste treatmentprocessing,HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiRecycling o Recyclingrecyclingor disposal, and monitoring ofHYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiWaste o Wastewastematerials. It may involve the production of solids, liquids or gases that may harm the community and its surroundings whereas hazardous waste management may directly cause the production of radioactive and other toxic waste that may be more tedious to manage (Waste Management, 2010). Waste management removal or prevention is different when you come across the developed and developing divide. Keeping this in mind, the case of Karachi, Pakistans waste management system would be the best to learn from in terms of the problems and solutions faced and rendered by a developing nation.<br />
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The core problem within the locales and communities of this buzzing town of over 10 million residents is an informal approach to recycling and a sub-par approach to waste removal techniques. Studies conducted for this purpose have all but failed to create a self-sustaining cycle due to the fat that none have been able to link themselves with the upcoming recycling industry in the country. They have not been able to engage some 21,000 waste disposal units or their contractors to work together efficiently. (Hasan, 2001)<br />
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Karachis Solid Waste Management System<br />
A linkage needs to be created between Karachis waste management committee and the private recycling system. The method chosen in order to articulate the key issues faced is to take a survey of the landfill sites allocated to waste disposal, the allocated waste disposal sites for the communities, the machinery used in waste collection and removal (on site) and most importantly interviews with leading private sector recyclers. (Environmental Pollution Unit, 2007) There are numerous reasons as to why the current state of Karachis waste management system is either inadequate or simply non-existent. At the heart of the issues lies the problem with the Karachi Municipal Committee, which is in charge of the waste system, which has been inadequately funded to procure or to deliver the waste to the lacking landfill sites. Accompanying such issues are problems such as a lack of disposal sites for the urban communities, inexistence of such facilities for the rural population which disposes off waste by throwing it into the nearby drains, the ever increasing costs of transporting the waste including fuel, human resource and machinery costs and the inadequate training of the engineers and sweepers needed for proper waste disposal management. The lack of training and development of any facilities for the latter have also been compounded by the fact that the ratio of sweepers to every 1000 members of society has been steadily declining.<br />
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The crux of the new framework would be to integrate the workings of the KMC with the informal network along with the allocation of 4 massive landfill sites that would be at feasible distances for all transporters in the south and the east. A combined effort of the utilities of Karachi, electric, gas and heavy machinery would prove to support the frameworks construction. A streamlined process would take the waste from the different locales in Karachi to the landfill sites, where heavy machinery such as magnetic cranes would separate the metal from the non-metals and hence would leave the remaining waste to be scavenged by the informal network of kabaris. The once decentralized effort of waste removal, that caused many problems with the kabaris sifting through garbage before it was taken to landfill and leaving the nearby community with garbage all across their locales, will now be a process that involves much of the KMC staff and the informal network of kabaris to work together. Apart from the conceptualization of a framework, investment is needed to enhance the waste disposal and removal facilities within Karachi, with 367 vehicles being deployed to cover the numerous allocated waste disposal centers. (Hasan, 2001) Along with these modifications strict controls and key links must be forged with the private sector for the efficient usage and operations of the landfill sites and their own respective recycling plants. A core problem faced by the waste management system, by the informal sector, is the burning of the remainder of the waste in order to sift through the garbage for the more valuable metals to recycle. The burnt waste could be reused as raw materials for numerous industries such as the glass and plastic industries. (Hasan, 2001).<br />
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Conclusion<br />
A system involving different towns Nazims (Towns Respective Mayors) and their subsequent community associations must be developed that allows for the deployment of a training and development system at the very core of the city. However this approach may not be suitable for the rural population. For the smaller locales at the outskirts of the towns, smaller vehicles for waste collection need to be employed with regular scheduled stops in order to keep those parts of the city involved in the process and in turn healthy and clean. Most of the industries dump freely by underhand dealings with the local authorities that degrade the system as well as the surrounding environment. The industrialists that dispose of hazardous waste need to be taken onboard this system and made responsible for their actions via stringent fines and subsequent criminal prosecution over the illegal dumping of any harmful pollutants. (Times, 2007)bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-52509948998984614252017-02-23T00:16:00.001-08:002017-02-23T00:16:25.115-08:00Water Engineering 1 Coursework Assignment For a water supply to be considered potable, it must satisfy some specific key quality parameters. These parameters are commonly categorized by their main characteristics, namely the physical, chemical, and biological parameters. To check whether the water supply satisfies the physical parameters, tests are conducted for its electrical conductivity, suspended solids (SS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total solids, and turbidity (cloudiness). For the chemical parameters, the water is tested for the amounts present of ammonia (NH3-N) and Nitrates (NO3-N), and the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), and total organic carbon (TOC) are also considered. To satisfy the biological parameters, the water supply must be free of Coliform bacteria, especially the most commonly known strand, Escherichia Coliform, or E. Coli.<br />
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The most common unit operations involved in the treatment of source waters with the aim of producing a potable water supply can be broken down into the following steps screening, aeration, coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation and flotation, filtration, and disinfection. The processes involved in this steps, and their respective purposes, are enumerated<br />
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First step Screening. The source water is first filtered through a screenmesh, a very basic kind of filtration process. This effectively removes relatively large debris from the water which can not only degrade the water quality, but also damage the other machinery involved in the water treatment. Multiple screens may be utilized for this step for better efficiency, and the water is sifted through the screens multiple times before moving on to the next step. When multiple screens are used, the water passes through these in a specific order, based on the relative sizes of the screen mesh. First, the water enters through the coarse screens, screens with openings which measure about 5cm to 15cm this removes the objects and debris that can significantly damage the treatment equipment. Next, the water enters through fine screens, screens with openings which measure about 5mm to 20mm this removes the small debris, like sand or gravel, which may also cause blockage and damage the machinery. Normally, the screens are placed at an oblique angle to the opening of the system to minimize problems with the water flow and so that they can be easily removed, cleaned, and replaced. The screening process only deals with removing physical impurities.<br />
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Second step Aeration. Aeration is required in the water treatment process if, for example, the water has low DO or contains dissolved gases. While many different methods can be used for aeration, cascade aeration, is the simplest and most common method. This process involves simply allowing the water to fall a specific distance into the next container (like a faucet), this method is also used by other industries to cool water. This drop allows oxygen in the air to be dissolved into the water, and thus displace other dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), or other volatile organic compounds. Carbonic acid, for example, is the solution of CO2 dissolved in water after aeration, this reverts to its gaseous carbon dioxide form, and effectively reduces the risks of having water with acidic pH which can be both unhealthy and corrosive. The process of aeration can also be useful for the eradication of trace metals in the water supply, such as iron and manganese. When the water (solution) has an acidic pH of less that 6.5, which can occur during aeration, trace iron becomes soluble as one of its ionic states (Fe3) can combine with the acidic water to become Fe(OH)3, an insoluble solid. This resulting hydroxide solid can then be filtered out of the water. The removal of manganese is through the same type of chemical process. Thus, the aeration step mostly deals with removing chemical impurities.<br />
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Third step Coagulation and Flocculation. Coagulation, which is basically the formation of precipitation, and flocculation, defined as the process wherein colloids come out of suspension, though they have some minute differences, are usually considered to be synonymous and in water treatment, are always considered to form a single process. These effectively remove impurities that are left behind even after filtration and sedimentation, as the particles involved in these processes are very small, usually less that 1m across. These suspended particles can either be partially dissolved, for coagulation, or simply suspended in the water to form a colloid, for flocculation, and can cause the water to have high turbidity or a slight tint. The particles involved in these processes have low settling characteristics, and can be a variety of substances such as clay, metal oxides, microorganisms, proteins, or other minute organic substances their only common characteristic is that they are very small and have negative charges. To induce coagulations and flocculation then, positively-charged multivalent ions or colloids are added to the water. These act as chemical coagulants which are commonly in the form of aluminum or ferric salts, containing Al3 or Fe 3 ions. As the salts dissolve in the water, the positive ions neutralize the suspended negative ions, thus making them coagulate into precipitate, or flocculate into floc or flakes. Coagulation and flocculation deal with removing both chemical and biological impurities.<br />
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Fourth step SedimentationFlotation. This process can be done simultaneously with other processes, such as coagulation and flocculation. Sedimentation occurs when the water is relatively still pulled down by gravity, some solids sink to the bottom of the treatment tank, thus turning into sediment that can be easily removed. While this process is useful for eradicating the solids left behind by filtration, it also effectively removes the precipitate andor flakes formed through coagulation and flocculation. In the process of sedimentation, the settling of the sediments is most important, so it requires the water to be placed in a sizeable tank wherein the water flow and disturbance are minimal.<br />
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Alternatively, flotation, a process which uses small streams of gas bubbles to make the solid impurities float, can be used in conjunction with, or instead of, sedimentation. When the gas bubble stream passes through the minute suspended solids, the impurities are buoyed up to the surface of the water (they float) where the can be easily filtered or skimmed out. Flotation is considered to be more desirable that sedimentation because while sedimentation requires a decent amount of time for the sediments to settle, flotation only needs enough time for the gas bubbles to pass through the entire volume of water. Sedimentation, however, is very simple, only requiring a tank and drains for the sediment and the clean water, while flotation needs a mechanism to form the gas bubbles. Sedimentation and flotation mostly deal with removing small physical impurities.<br />
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Fifth step Filtration. Filtration, unlike the initial screening step, involved the water being filtered through a porous substance, such as anthracite or sand. This effectively cleans out both organic and inorganic substances that were left behind by the sedimentationflotation and coagulation and flocculation processes. Some water treatment plants or machines filter the water through special salts with large grains and low solubility for a variety of reasons, one of which is to soften the water. Though it seems unnecessary, most water treatment processes still incorporate this final filtration process to make sure that no unwanted particles are still left in the water. Filtration, when using material such as sand as the filtration medium, deal with mostly physical impurities, but when using salts, it can also remove chemical and biological impurities.<br />
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Sixth and Last step Disinfection. This final process is very important, as it rids the water of all the microorganisms left in the water after all the other processes are finished. Since the purpose of potable water is that people can drink it without getting sick, disinfection should be incorporated in water treatment. However, the term disinfection means to simply deactivate potentially harmful microorganism and not to kill them, as this is sterilization although both terms are commonly interchanged. The most common method of disinfection is by adding chlorine to the water, as chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent that kills microorganisms. Another reason why chlorine is so commonly used is that it is relatively cheap in bulk. However, excessive intake of chlorine can be very harmful, and the presence of chlorine in drinking water can usually be detected because it has a certain smell. Disinfection, of course, deals with removing biological impurities.<br />
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Other alternative methods commonly used in water treatment are sterilization using Ultraviolet (UV) light, and processes which make use of reverse osmosis, wherein water flows from relatively higher concentration to lower concentration (the opposite of the normal behavior of flowing from lower to higher concentration).bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-18062621173429530692017-02-23T00:15:00.002-08:002017-02-23T00:15:36.903-08:00Sustainable practices in Auckland RecyclingToni Gladding of Open University in his article Integrated Waste Systems has mentioned, every month homes and businesses in Auckland City put enough rubbish into landfill to fill a rugby field five storeys high and has forced us to imagine our plight in case we ignore this huge quantity of waste being produced day after day. Can we do without reacting to these waste dumps created by us Try to imagine Auckland without the sustainable practices by Zero Waste New Zealand Trust involved in resource recycling. Also the trust continuously encourages and motivates all sectors of New Zealand society to work towards a target of Zero Waste and provides information on products made from recycled materials in New Zealand. The company has developed and maintained a wide range of contacts in the manufacturing field, waste diversion and recycling industries throughout New Zealand. Over the past two years the company has gained extensive experience in both the commercial arena and for the councils. Zero waste is known and trusted in the sectors involving recycling and reuse of organic waste to produce biogas and e-waste recycling. A more recent innovation is the set-up of an industry group, which has been formed to promote the re-use and recycling of old tyres. A respite to the landfills is proposed by Jim and Janene Laughton who are the founding members of this organization and will help with promoting alternative uses of tyres, and prevent the dumping of tyres into the landfill. <br />
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New Zealands Litter is a real problem for Auckland This article in the magazine Good New Zealands guide to sustainable living makes every one think about the huge amount of litter produced every year. Do the landfills in the region have an appetite to consume nearly 3.4 million tons of waste which is disposed in the regions landfill every year, and it is common knowledge that this figure grows as fast as the population of the region. Landfills are no longer a cheap or appropriate way to dispose of our waste. It is in everyones interest to reduce waste, reuse goods and recycle materials.<br />
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Every one should be a part of the Campaign Be a Tidy Kiwi aimed at encouraging people to reduce the amount of rubbish. What will be the future of the waste if it not processed Yes it will end up on our streets and in our waterways and which will be swept into water drains and emptied into the sea. It is a dismaying thought that one may end up swimming with it if we dont wake up and change the way we think about our rubbish, and this means we have to change the way we think about what we buy and what we do with things when they are no longer useful to us. Paul Brown general manager of Paramount publishing company has appreciated the launch of curbside recycling in Auckland which includes distribution of 120,000 recycling bins and purchase of 17 special truck-and-trailer units for collecting recyclables. The proposal was rejected four years ago as it was not economical to recycle waste in comparison to dumping. However Steve Bickers, manager of Aucklands Waste Minimization Office told New Zealand that the cost was right down on what was expected.<br />
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Waste is inescapable, keeping the planet clean should be everyones business hence the new Waste Minimization Act allows for product stewardship schemes which will collect and recycle products instead of sending them to landfill. In addition there are provisions for the Minister of the Environment to declare products to be priority products meaning schemes must be developed for these. Waste minimization activities and programs are being run effectively by Community groups, schools and most of the local councils in NZ and are encouraged and supported adequately by the Minister of the Environment.<br />
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Recycling can be made advantageous by ensuring scientific disposal of waste and by generating enough revenues either from the generators or by identifying cost effective activities that generate resources from waste. Garbage revolution starts at home. Auckland City utility and environmental manager Mike McQuillan is very positive that very soon there is going to be change in outlook and attitude of people towards recycling and have a clean-street objective. The New Zealand Waste Strategy sets in place a framework for addressing how we can minimize and manage waste.. Recycling in public place is being encouraged by the Ministry for the Environment by launching a national campaign Love New Zealand. The council is currently considering extending the public place recycling trial to other areas around the city. Auckland City Council too has initiated a twelve-month recycling trial in the central business district (CBD) to support the national campaign. The council is also planning to extend this trial of public place recycling to other areas around the city, by placing adequate number of bins for waste collection. The bins will be emptied by the council contractors twice a day and the recyclables collected will be sent to the Materials Recovery Facility for processing. The waste will be separated into various streams like plastics, glass, paper, etc. The plastic is recycled to make soft drink bottles, pillow and sleeping bag filling, recycling bins and speed bumps. Paper is converted to recycled paper used widely in printing and packaging industry. Glass is recycled to new glass bottles and jars and as a sand substitute in road construction. Steel Metals can be recycled again and again.<br />
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Electronic waste, or e-waste, is an environmental problem that is increasing in lockstep. Computer equipment and other electronics like cell phones, TVs, and microwaves are the most dangerous waste. This is the e-waste which is growing in leaps and bound as the lust for acquiring modern gadgets with latest technology is increasing rapidly. The disposing of e-waste is expensive so many people just put equipment in dumpsters. There should be some sort of an alarm in the garbage bins to prevent dumping of e-waste in garbage bins. At local levels small scale refurbishment and recycling is happening, where individuals are making huge efforts to extend the usable life of equipment. Organizations such as The Ark Recycling and RCN in Auckland are doing an excellent job by reusing used computers in schools and charitable organizations. A recycling program has been initiated by Dell in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch. This type of refurbishment and recycling should not be limited only to e-waste but should be extended to all types of waste at source. Manufacturers should shoulder the responsibility of disposal and recycling of there products. A policy should be introduced where it is mandatory for all manufactures to provide economical and effective procedure of disposal and recycling of their product.<br />
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To face the waste challenges a garbage-recycling combi can be developed. The heart of the recycling combi is a high tech separator. It should be a mobile tank in tank construction and integrate Recycling with Recology. A high tech Separator should be designed and installed on mobile vans to segregate the waste at source before transporting to recycling plants. Organic waste, paper, plastic and metals that are generally recycled should be separated at source by using adequate sensors to identify and segregate waste. Waste other than these should be recycled and made into construction material or used in landscaping. Just like nature recycles its resources like carbon, nitrogen and water, objective of making a high tech separator is to create paper cycle, plastic cycle, and glass cycle etc of man made material. An industrial ecosystem can be developed between Industry and consumer. Waste of the consumer should generate raw material for industry and it is the moral responsibility of the technocrats to recycle the waste into consumer goods.<br />
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All of us need to take cue from Andrew Niskers film GARBAGE The Revolution Starts at Home and realize the astronomical amount of waste we are collectively creating turning the earth into one giant garbage can as shown in his film. The right approach will be to think of innovative ways to recycle waste both domestic and business at source. bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-65995164934380831312017-02-23T00:14:00.002-08:002017-02-23T00:14:46.878-08:00INFILL DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT AN ANSWER FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTWhat will happen in a few years when we will have used all of the natural resources of our plant What will we drink when we will have polluted all the water that is on Earth Where will the green house effect lead our survival Will there be an Earth to live for our future generations And why dont we do something to avoid all these doubts and questions The answer to all these questions and many others that deal with the basic issue of human survival and progress, along with the future of this planet is sustainable development. Sustainable development is a term that is used to describe a certain kind of societal development. This term and concept was developed with the thought of generating a way for humans to use the resources of the earth in a more conservative and efficient manner. Sustainable development is all about development without the reduction in the natural resources of the planet, or with added focus on the regeneration of the natural resources of our planet.<br />
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It is understood that with our modernized societies and with our fast paced progress, development is inevitable. With development, there will always be some resources that have to be used or in economic terms, given up, for us to attain that new level of development. With the level of progress of our society, it is soon becoming our latest fear that soon we will have used up all the resources of the planet, or furthermore, will have made some irreparable damage to our plant, such as the greenhouse effect. Many great thinkers and experts, like Milbrath, have endlessly criticized the brutal use of the natures resources by the industrial society, declaring it to be the cause of potential destruction of our planet. Milbrath has been an active advocate of the cause of preserving our planet and has written works like Envisioning a sustainable society on this topic.<br />
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The problem with the so called modernized society as we see around us today is that we are consuming the natural resources of our planet at a much faster rate than the one with which these resources are regenerated. As said by Milbrath<br />
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Not only has modern industrial society created this crisis, but in my judgment, it is not capable of producing a solution. (Milbrath L. 1989, p. 40)<br />
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The human population mainly consumes the resources of land, plants and trees, water and minerals for the purpose of employing the many devices and inventions that have been created for the ease and benefit of the humanity. The use of such devices is not being prohibited here, only their level of use is being cautioned. As with the increase of use of such resources, there is an ever increasing threat of these resources getting completely depleted. With some non-renewable resources, such as minerals, oil etc, the threat of depletion runs very high. For other renewable resources, such as water, wood etc, the threat is less, but still high if we compare the amount of these resources that were present in the past to the amount that is available today, as these resources are getting less with each passing day. Thus if renewable resources are not regenerated with the same rate as they are being utilized by the population, we have a potential scenario that one day these resources might also disappear or become too scarce to have any commercial use. <br />
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Another major problem with our modernized society is that it has cost the degradation of our environment at a very massive scale. Issues such as depletion of the ozone layer, the greenhouse effect, global warming, disappearance of rain forests, increased air and water pollution have raised alarm bells all over the world that the environment needs proper care from the people of the planet. Yet sadly, there have been no huge efforts to stop these issues. The corporations, governments and the people continue to utilize and deplete the natural environment and the offered resources that there seems to be no stopping of the ongoing destruction of the environment.<br />
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Due to all these reasons our society has been declared as one with an unfriendly environment attitude, and basically an unsustainable environmental society. Profound thinkers, such as Lester Milbrath etc, have linked these issues with the future of our society, and it seems to be very bleak one. They are constantly thinking for means to overcome these hurdles. Thus the concept of a sustainable society was given as an attempt to take care of the prevailing environmental issues. A sustainable society is one that believes in not only consuming and utilizing the resources offered by nature at a moderately conserving rate, but also to repay the nature in terms of conserving or regenerating the resources, so that the resources are at a constant level. The prime consideration for a sustainable society is the concept of grow what you have reaped, i.e. in order to keep the resources of the society at a nearly constant level, the society must seek out means to pay back the society and the environment for the resources utilized. Furthermore, a sustainable society is one that seeks out methods for the vitalization of the environment, recognizing the fact that in order for future generations to have the world to live in, we must conserve the natural resources and the environment. But this requires from us to change our mindset, to change our style of living and thinking.<br />
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A vision for such a society, keeping in mind the human need of development, was devised and came to be known as sustainable development. The concept of sustainable development implies the use of only such methods of development and to initiate new developmental methods that focus on conserving the natural resources and the environment. Development of the society should not stop or slow down, but now the focus of development should also include innovating developmental techniques for the preservation of environment, preservation of resources and regeneration of resources that are consumed by the society.<br />
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A sustainable society does something more than keep people aliveso that future generations of people, and other creatures, can enjoy a life of decent quality (Milbrath L., 1989, p. 41)<br />
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Sustainable development has made some tremendous progress in the last few years that we have seen. Many new developmental methods that were previously never been imagined are now being tested and showing vast potential for both development and environmental sustainability. These methods, though being employed at very small scales, yet have shown such positive results that many governments have announced their implementation at vast levels. Two of such methods include infill development and transit oriented development.<br />
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Infill development is a new concept that has recently been devised to counter against the problems of growing population and less space for housing. With the growing population on Earth, more space was being cleared for development and housing, leaving less space for forests and trees. The concept of infill development states using the barren areas in already developed regions to carry out new housing and developmental projects. Furthermore, infill development urges using under-developed portions of a society, that are left for one or the other reason, and transform them into houses or any other kind of developmental project, such as gym, recreation centre etc. The main concept behind this theory of development is to develop across the factor of increasing the density of population in the already developed suburban areas. This is primarily known as suburban infill. It has the major advantage that more people can live in the same area, thus we dont need to clear more space for the expansion of the society and destroying nature such as trees, forests etc. Also a major benefit could be that more people will be nearer, decreasing the additional hassles of developing roads and increased transportation.<br />
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Another kind of infill development is infill housing, where the concept is to increase the population density of a particular housing area by increasing the number of housing units. This vertical development has many advantages such as less space coverage, less developmental cost for additional housing, no additional utilities cost to be taken and less damage to the environment. A sustainable society can be developed with such a method being used for the housing of the members of the society, as his method houses more people with fewer resources utilized.<br />
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The second kind of sustainable development that is getting very positive results is transit oriented development. The transit oriented development basically focuses on the development of a society along the foundation of its train or transit system. The focus of development is to build the society in such a way that all the parts of the society can be linked through the transit system, As well as the transit system should be at a very near distance from each geographic point or area of the society. Such a society development would ensure that the major transport available and utilized will be the transit system. This carries many benefits. Firstly, according to the definition of a sustainable society, such a society should focus on the preservation and care of nature. Through a transit oriented society, there will be less use of automobiles, thus less fuel consumption as well as les air pollution. Secondly, another advantage could be the ease of traveling with the society without the hassle of maintaining automobiles or problems of traffic. As there will be less pollution in the region, so the quality of life of the society and its members will also increase, and the people will lead healthier lives.<br />
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Transit oriented societies and development has vast potential for our current societies. Keeping in mind the views if sustainable society as given by Milbrath, infill development and transit oriented development can help in achieving that society, as both focus on preserving nature, using science to serve natural development, and providing means to develop with limited resources and less damage to environment. Thus these methods can bring about a sustainable society as visualized by Milbrath in his books.<br />
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Infill development and transit oriented development are the two major forms of sustainable development that we are being successfully implemented today at small levels. Both have so far given very positive results. Both have shown a tendency for the continuation of the development pace of our current societies, with giving something back to the society in form of preservation of its environment and using less of the environmental resources. We are very positive that these two methods, if implemented on a society wide basis, can become the forms of a sustainable society such as the one given by Milbrath, where love, justice, security and self-realization are the core elements. Such a society is vital not only for our healthier lives, but also for the survival of this planet and our future generations. But this is a decision that we have to make soon, for the future of our planet rests upon it.<br />
<br />
Once we have contemplated the future, every decision that could affect that future becomes a moral decision..Those who understand what is happening to our world are not free to shrink from this responsibility. (Milbrath L., 1989, p. 51)bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-20298280686733397222017-02-23T00:13:00.000-08:002017-02-23T00:13:12.729-08:00Kyoto Protocol Requirements and Expectations for SwedenAbstract<br />
This paper brings into light Sweden s contribution towards greenhouse gas emission.<br />
Swedens stance on the Kyoto Protocol, its success rate, and the constraints it had to overcome are known through this research article. Sweden s environmental initiative as per the EU under the European Trading Scheme (ETS) and across the Baltic Sea is also discussed to bring out its active role in curbing carbon emission. A clear picture of how Sweden s profile changed from altruistic to less philanthropic interests between 1960 and 1980 is shown in this paper. However, Sweden s response to protocols and treaties are positive and the research article will educate that Sweden stands as a role model for other EU countries and for the whole world.<br />
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Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study<br />
To save the world from greenhouse gas emissions and to give the future generations a safe place for living, every country has to behave responsibly. Natural environment is everyone s concern irrespective of where they live or what they do. People of Sweden understand this in the right perspective and do not wait for law or government to impose anything to prevent the right of common access. However, the right of common access demands that everyone act responsibly and follow certain guidelines. When most countries are unable to meet the targets of Kyoto Protocol, Sweden stands as a role model proving beyond the call of duty to save the world from the worsening effects of global warming.<br />
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Sweden is keen on promoting international accords and agreements to protect global environment. Its interest towards global environment is known through Kyoto Protocol signed by Sweden and the EU to reduce green gas emissions by 8 between 2008 and 2012. According to the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) national allocation plan, Sweden s annual cap (2008-2010) is 22.8 mmt CO2e, the annual JICDM limit is 10, equal to 2.3 in mmt CO2e. The EU ETS meets its obligation under the Kyoto Protocol. It covers more than 10,000 energy intensive facilities across the 27 EU countries. It uses a market-based mechanism to reduce greenhouse emissions in a cost effective and economical way.<br />
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Statement of the Problem<br />
When most countries are unable to meet the targets of Kyoto Protocol, Sweden stands as a role model proving beyond the call of duty to save the world from the worsening effects of global warming. Sweden had already cut many of its emissions however, Swedish position in the EU is much more like a laggard than a leader. There arose a question of Sweden s nuclear phase out and this did not happen as there was no right replacement fuel to maintain emissions under control. Sweden is keen on promoting international accords and agreements to protect global environment. Koyoto Protocol was signed by Sweden and the EU to reduce green gas emissions by 8 between 2008 and 2012. One can observe changes in Sweden s profile between 1970s and now due to increase in business activities and unions.<br />
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Research Questions<br />
To meet the goals and purpose of this study, five research questions were explored<br />
Did Sweden meet the standards set by Kyoto Protocol If so, to what extent<br />
On the whole, what is Sweden s contribution towards environment<br />
What constraints are more binding on Sweden<br />
Is Sweden interested in the EU and Baltic states with regard to environmental issues<br />
What did it cost Sweden in the process of achieving its policies relating to environment and pollution <br />
Definition of Terms<br />
Kyoto Protocol - is an international agreement reached in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan to address the problems of climate change.<br />
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EU ETS - is a cap-and-trade system which allows participants from eligible countries to trade European Union Allowances.<br />
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GHG Protocol - is the most widely used international accounting tool for government and business leaders to understand, quantify, and manage greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
CDMJI - refers to Clean Development MechanismJoint Implementation<br />
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Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature<br />
When most countries are unable to meet the targets of Kyoto Protocol, Sweden stands as a role model proving beyond the call of duty to save the world from the worsening effects of global warming. Sweden is keen on promoting international accords and agreements to protect global environment. This interest is known through Kyoto Protocol signed by Sweden and the EU to reduce green gas emissions by 8 between 2008 and 2012.<br />
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Since Sweden achieved more than the prescribed reduction, it has been allowed to increase emissions by 4. But Sweden was prepared to reduce its emission by another 2 during the same period. <br />
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The EU ETS is the first and the largest emissions trading scheme that regulates GHG emissions. The EU ETS is a key component to the EU climate policy commitment to the Kyoto Protocol. It currently coincides with the Kyoto commitment period. Any country failing to meet the compliance obligation is required to pay a penalty of 100 euro per metric ton and is also required to make up the shortfall in the subsequent calendar year.<br />
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The EU ETS has been established through binding legislations proposed by the European Commission and approved by the EU member states and the European Parliament. The member states are responsible for the implementation of the emission trading scheme at the national level. The future of the EU-ETS from 2013 onwards will be more harmonized through abolishing national allocation plans.<br />
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According to the EU ETS national allocation plan, Sweden s annual cap (2008-2010) is 22.8 mmt CO2e, the annual JICDM limit is 10, equal to 2.3 in MMt CO2e. Sweden has carried out considerable amount of work between 2003 and 2005 to establish a natural system for climate reporting.<br />
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Sweden s assigned amount for the commitment period (2008-2012) is calculated as the total green house gas emissions in 1990, excluding LULUCF and fluorinated gases in 1995, multiplied by Sweden s quantified emission limitation commitment (104) and multiplied by<br />
(71809.61 642.44) 1.04 5 376750.652 Gg CO2<br />
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Under ETS, the EU sets limits for CO2 emissions. For the EU member states to trade their allowances among themselves, Sweden s plan required only minimal changes from its first draft, announcing a domestic reduction target of 2 between 2008 and 2010 with an aim to decrease 50 by 2050. Sweden promoted both the EU ETS scheme as well as flexible mechanisms at the November-December 2005 conference of the FCCC parties in Montreal (ENB 2005).<br />
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The Swedish example of intra-EU Kyoto Protocol stands as a role model for other small states on how they could exert power in the EU and on the world stage through normative influence. Both the EU and UN are working towards achieving reduction in carbon emissions in Sweden. The government of Sweden is investing about SEK 5 billion between 2009 and 2011 to reduce the climate impact. Sweden is positive in making its contribution towards achieving EU s ambitious targets. Sweden is all set to reduce emissions, increase the efficiency of energy and increase the proportion of renewable energy. The government has introduced a new funding of SEK 3 billion in 2008 and the bill also has a special initiative for climate and development work of SEK 4 billion.<br />
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To make the climate changes sustainable by 2050, Sweden behaves responsibly with the public agencies, organizations, enterprises and individuals all cooperating in the process. Sweden s legislation and economic instruments go hand in hand. The nongovernmental organizations are important stakeholders.<br />
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Emissions from use of bunker fields in Sweden for international shipping and aviation reduced to 7.2 million tons, nearly half compared to 1990. According to Kyoto Protocol, when it comes to international aviation, each party within International Civil Aviation (ICAO) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) will have to carry out decisions taken in the Kyoto Protocol and present it accordingly. Sweden is actively involved in ICAO to devise measures to curb green gas emissions. Some of its involvement leads to the following<br />
Technology and fueling improvement<br />
An index system with certification<br />
Cost effective measures<br />
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Sweden is also active within the EU by preparing a common position on how fuels for international air traffic and shipping can be covered. Sweden s role is vital in European Cooperation in limiting emissions.<br />
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Sweden is also committed to a government-financed CDM and JI program administered by the Swedish Energy Agency. The funds invested in SICLP (Swedish International Climate Investment Program) is expected to reduce carbon emissions around 5 million tons between 2008 and 2012.<br />
The development of green accounting in Sweden follows three paths, namely<br />
Statistics Sweden<br />
EPA<br />
National Bureau of Economic Research<br />
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The National Bureau of Economic Research is responsible for the study of environmental effects due to the emissions. A study by Ahlorth (2001) and her accounting matrix mainly exist today to bridge a gap between two traditions in the green accounting literature. Ahlroth (2001) arrives at a national product as the sum of consumption, stock slow utility impacts of pollution and the sum of the new change of all stocks, valued at the appropriate shadow prices. <br />
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Harris study concludes that the environmental cost of sulfur and nitrogen (in 1919) in Sweden is as a percentage of NNP, around 2. The national bureau of economic research takes a stance that development is sustainable if green NNP is not reduced over time (between 1993 and 1997). The national capital is calculated as the loss of production incurred by environmental degradation.<br />
Excessively high nutrient levels in the Baltic Sea, acidification of lakes and land, and continuing exposure to a number of toxic substances could result in adverse health conditions.<br />
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Sweden had already cut many of its emissions however, Swedish position in the EU is much more like a laggard than a leader. After a 1980 referendum, Sweden s parliament<br />
wanted to phase out the use of nuclear power by 2010 but that target was abandoned later. Sweden has no alternative to nuclear energy and so coal and other sources became a distinct possibility of energy resources. Cheap hydropower was a major factor in Sweden s industrial development. <br />
Sweden remained an active participant in international GCC discussions. Sweden s expertise and policy experience have set the stage for other states to expect environmentally friendly behavior from Sweden.<br />
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Sweden is concerned about its environment and made progress in the international scenario. However, norm-based behavior has its limits. These norms fail to dominate sometimes. The state tries to mediate between societal feelings on nuclear power, economic stability and GHG reduction commitments.<br />
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Sweden at some stage proposed not to donate more than 1 of GDP annually to other EU countries. With less money, the EU was not able to fund its newest members and its projects relating to sustainable development. Also, Sweden has lost some of its institutional power with respect to environmental politics. Sweden s troubles are a microcosm of the EU s troubles. Should Sweden develop a solution, it will no doubt become a very influential state, in both EU and international forums.<br />
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Some of the selected objectives from the 16 environmental quality objectives (EQOs) are given below<br />
Reduced climate impact<br />
Zero eutrophication.<br />
A rich diversity of plant and animal life<br />
Non-toxic environment<br />
A protective ozone layer.<br />
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Swedish government established the Environmental Object Council to promote all 16 objectives.<br />
Sweden s environmental objective has two purposes, namely, to contribute to realizing Swedish environmental quality objectives and contribute to a good European environment. Besides the EU, Sweden takes part in other environmental cooperation in its neighborhood especially in the Nordic region, the Barents region, the Baltic Sea region and the Arctic as well as with the countries of eastern and central Europe. Sweden also takes part in cooperation in the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).<br />
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There has been a rather extraordinary political consensus in Sweden around the existence and design of the environmental support to the Baltic states. All political parties in Sweden except the Left Party and New Democracy have been in government and in opposition during the period under study. There is a large degree of consent within parties regarding both the existence of the environmental support.<br />
Once Soviet Union was broken, the far reaching environmental commitments with countries adjacent to Baltic Sea were difficult to achieve. The Baltic states were not happy with Moscow as far as environmental policies are concerned due to Moscow s tardy behavior.<br />
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However, a stage was set later for Swedish foreign policy towards the former socialist states across the Baltic Sea. SEK1 billion was allocated by Swedish aid program for a three-year period (199091 - 199293). <br />
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Sweden not only exceeded the target set by Kyoto Protocol but has also registered a strong economic growth during the same period. Once, an environment minister, Andreas Carlgren, said, Sweden can encourage industrialized countries that have not yet done enough and convince developing countries that sustainable development of society is possible.<br />
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Emissions from the transport sector were also decreasing for the first time in many years in Sweden. Swedish aid was idealistic in the 1960s compared to the one at a later decade. The insistence was to make the aid pure , i.e., to analyze domestic considerations in the design of aid programs. Swedishs profile was altruistic due to key policy makers and administrators. The political mood in the 1970s was radical but nowadays this has been counterbalanced. <br />
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There are external problems such as oil crisis, domestic deficiencies, etc. Defenders of pure aid were pressured by industry and union interests. The repercussions of the aid programs on the domestic economy were no longer easily dismissed. Motives other than pure altruism began to influence the formulation of Swedish development aid policy. Swedish environmental policy was no longer confined to national borders. Problems relating to Baltic Sea centered on transnational, environment cooperation initiatives. In the 1980s, the Swedish aid policies were affected more by less philanthropic interests due to business and labor organizations. Cooperation and mutual benefit resolved this conflict to a great extent later. <br />
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The aim of bringing the transforming countries into a global, European, and economic cooperation was stated as a Swedish goal. Out of SEK900 million allocated as development aid budget, 400 million were earmarked for environmental assistance.<br />
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Some of the major environmental events that took place in Sweden are as follows<br />
Sustainability incorporated to achieve the Peoples Home concept of consensus politics <br />
Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea region<br />
Kyoto Protocol<br />
The government Environment Bill presents 15 EQOs.<br />
Many companies participated in the annual environmental index.<br />
Sweden took part in World Bank s Prototype Carbon Fund.<br />
Government Commission on waste was introduced. <br />
Green Shift was introduced.<br />
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The expectations on the Swedish presidency are high on climate change. Oxfam International is of the opinion that Sweden must secure a leading position in the EU for better environmental policies. Action Aid, Green Peace and WWF also take the same stance. Birdlife International congratulated Sweden for being at the forefront of European environmental policy.<br />
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Accomplishing one objective sometimes means backpedaling on another. This is the case with Sweden s nuclear power plant. The referendum to phase out nuclear power did not materialize. The most natural substitutes for nuclear power to electricity generation are boilers fueled by coal, fuel oil, or natural gas, any of which would add to Sweden s emissions of carbon dioxide. Hydroelectric power currently accounts for more than half the electricity generated.<br />
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Sweden has a population of 8.5 million with a per capita GDP of 25000. Sweden is increasingly integrated into the European economy.<br />
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High quality science eliminates environmental problems but it is often ill-organized. Interdisciplinary integration and problems in a larger context do not figure in the above scenario. Specialized tools, theories and views will have to be applied to eliminate errors in the above system.<br />
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Sweden was committed to phasing out its nuclear power and there was a 4 increase in 1990. A few other poor countries like Ireland, Spain, Greece and Portugal were granted generous increases in emissions in 1990. If the costs reducing CO2 are higher in Sweden than in Poland, Sweden should be allowed to help reduce emissions in Poland as long as Poland is within Sweden s national target. Sweden can buy some of these emission rights from Poland (Kyoto Protocol).<br />
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The Swedish EPA engages consultants to calculate greenhouse gas emissions and removals. The methodology used is described within the framework of the national system<br />
for the procedural arrangements. The inventory and reporting is qualitative so as to systematically plan and improve. Some of the outstanding principles of Swedish EPA in its climate reporting are the following (1) transparency (2) consistency (3) compatibility (4) completeness (5) accuracy.<br />
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Sweden is keen on stepping up Europe s energy efficiency legislation. Sweden considers its environmental strategy as a transition into an eco-efficient economy.<br />
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Sweden strongly pushes ahead with energy efficiency legislation even in the absence of a political agreement between EU ministers. There is an action plan that aims to achieve EU s goal of saving 20 more energy in 2020. This is not a binding target. The Swedish government had set its own national agenda to slash greenhouse gas emissions by 40 in sectors that do not participate in the EU ETS by 2020. The aim is to become completely carbon neutral by 2050. Sweden would invest 27.3 euro annually between 2010 and 2020 to implement energy efficiency measures. Initiatives were proposed to save both money and energy. Energy efficient technologies are given priority.<br />
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Chapter 3 Methodology<br />
This study examines the contributions of Sweden towards the environment. Sweden s active role within its boundary and in the EU are known to us through various scholarly references. Books written by Gan, Haris, Hassler, etc., give the real scenario of what has been happening in Sweden since the 1970s. For latest information and data, government web sites proved to be useful. Besides, a number of books, internet sources are referred to to arrive at a conclusion.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
Natural environment is everyone s concern irrespective of where they live or what they do. People of Sweden understand this in the right perspective and do not wait for law or government to impose anything to prevent the right of common access. However, the right of common access demands that everyone act responsibly and follow certain guidelines.<br />
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Sweden practices what it preaches and this practice has made Sweden a global leader in environmental protection. Sweden is concerned about the future generation and takes tough measures to pass over a clean and safe environment to them. From the environment code to the right of common access, Sweden is setting the standard for the rest of the world, thereby showing its love and respect for nature. bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-32979450393762258612017-02-18T06:46:00.001-08:002017-02-18T06:46:17.521-08:00Endangered LifeProviding sufficient legislation is one important aspect shaping environmentalism provides opportunities towards expanding the value of implementing responsibility and changes with the current challenges. It takes into account creating a collaborative action and response towards todays increasing threats towards the environment. Seeing this, the capacity of exploring the development of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) remains to be considered and vital. By addressing the specific loopholes in its legislation and expanding its policies to meet the current demands of today, the ESA can fully utilize its value in ensuring a mutual accountability to the government and the citizenry.<br />
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Seeing this, the analysis shall look into the differing perspectives concerning the viability of expanding the tenets inscribed within the ESA. It includes formulating and assessing how each side corresponds to either its development or abolishment. By catering to this avenue, it can help provide effective representation of issues shaping these diverging perspectives.<br />
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Analyzing the contradicting ideas about the expansion of ESA, proponents seek to establish new principles and avenues wherein it can address the current trends of today. By reinforcing new patterns towards amending the law, it can help standardize measures that are important today and cultivate better means for participation among the citizenry and the government (Desiderio, 2002). At the same time, the current conditions among species, considerably needs attention. Given the continued strategy to exhaust resources, updating the ESA would prove to be a constructive strategy in creating new means for consolidating efforts such as budgeting, policies, and programs for preservation (United States Senate, 2005).<br />
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On the other hand, the contrasting perspective considers the abolishment of the ESA. The main reason for this revolves around the inability of the law to further address the environmental problems. It points out that the accounts for change only resulted to further degradation due to the loopholes associated with this mandate (Miller and Spoolman, 2008). Seeing this, it is indeed crucial to provide the responsibility towards institutions, organizations, and citizens that are more concerned, dynamic, and adaptive to the continuous change happening in the system. These avenues in turn necessitate better means of addressing endangered species without ample consideration to existing standards related to policies (Easton, 2009).<br />
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Critically analyzing the issue, the value of expanding the ESA is one approach that can involve the government in efforts to address the problems of the environment. In particular, it considers the ability to shape furthering and expanding conservation efforts. With the ability of the US government to provide support through budgeting and enacting of rules and standards, it creates better means of consolidating the threats to endangered species (Miller and Spoolman, 2008). Such directions then infuse creating a consensus towards creating a society that is responsive and responsible towards sustainability, preservation, and conservation of todays endangered species.<br />
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At the same time, expanding the ESA also culminates the process of infusing the role of the government in social concerns. Since environmental conservation and protection of endangered species goes along with other social issues, pointing out new prospects for ESA can deliver important results (e.g. expanding the protection of animals, habitat conservation, and exhaustion of resources). Allowing this process to occur justifies the cause of establishing relationships and widens the scope of application as the interplay of groups and individuals becomes fully realized (Desiderio, 2002).<br />
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Overall, the paper will then utilize important sources to recognize how the conflicting perspectives contribute to the process of negotiations and ascertaining interests. Such directions can then establish the process of how ESA not only consolidates the value of protection and conservation but also be an instrument towards furthering opportunities to reach out, communicate, and respond to the increasing threats towards sustainability and adherence to current trends. bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-78646299304855914812017-02-18T06:45:00.004-08:002017-02-18T06:45:35.231-08:00Received Wisdoms The Colonial Legacy in Colonial ManagementColonialism saw the oppression of indigenous people during the colonial era and the promotion of western ideologies. At the time, indigenous people were reluctant and resistant to changing their ways which was received with great reproach by colonialists. Even though most colonial legacies are often based on western knowledge, indigenous people still strive to utilize their own knowledge in fostering development. However, there are those who have chosen to adapt received wisdom from their colonial legacies and modern day western philosophies and conceptualization. This clash between indigenous knowledge and received wisdom is highly evident in postcolonial management of former colonies. It is in this regard that Heaven, Owen and Okonkwo (2010) aim at establishing the concept of received wisdoms in colonial management and the role played by indigenous knowledge in fostering the same.<br />
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Puri (2007, p.359) indicates that indigenous knowledge is that shared knowledge within a community, one which has evolved over time through utilization trials and errors. Indigenous knowledge is often used by these communities in meeting their needs, lifestyle conditions and realities. As this form of knowledge is context based and embedded in the everyday lives of community members it is normally expressed through traditional customs, wisdom, technology and experience. Indigenous communities averse to changes and who strongly believe in their traditions perceive that western knowledge and its technological might cannot resolve community problems. Ideally, the perspective that indigenous knowledge fosters the harmonious coexistence between man and nature has been a narrative used in developing sustainable resources management.<br />
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Indigenous knowledge has recently clamored great support in the postcolonial era as it is hailed to effect equitable growth, economic growth and participatory development of the communities. As such, there seems to be an emerging search for the new rhetoric and practice of indigenous knowledge as opposed to western knowledge. Its contrasting elements are observed in that indigenous knowledge seems to be the basis of decision making in local communities with regards to agriculture, education, environmental and resource management and health care. In addition, indigenous knowledge is observed to possess great value to the surrounding local communities and even for western researchers and planners who seek to improve living conditions in these communities. The uniqueness of indigenous knowledge lies in its natural relationship with local communities.<br />
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Indeed, there are former colonies which have abandoned received wisdoms imparted to them by their masters and gone back to traditional practices. Bicker, Pottier and Sillitoe (2004, p.197) illustrates that a majority of middle and working class Indians have taken up traditional medical practices and shunned the use of western medicine and doctors. Medical traditional practices incorporate cultural and supernatural belief most traditional doctors treating the body as a moral entity as opposed to the mere physical element found in western knowledge. Furthermore, people in India consult traditional doctors for more than medical attention such as seeking guidance. This results to community cohesion and the overall development of national identity. This factor is the greatest advantage that indigenous knowledge has over western knowledge. Narratives have also been used in supporting indigenous resource management practices as illustrated by Hanna and Munasinghe (1995, p.101). Practices by the Cree Amerindians in Canada have been shown to community based management systems. These Cree traditional management systems are based on encoded ideals like respect, reciprocity and shared ideals amongst community members. A common Cree narrative of a hunter has been used in highlighting positive effects and ideals of indigenous resource management practices. The Cree people have a respect for game and abide by the principles that game animals are in control of the hunting process and that the role of human beings involves the cooperation of a community of beings in the natural system.<br />
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One major problem of indigenous knowledge is that it sometimes fails to address modern day issues and this can lead to the continued underdevelopment of indigenous communities. It is then that received wisdom dominates the colonial management debate which encourages the practice of policies which align with modern markets and international cooperation. Received wisdom encompasses knowledge which has been extensively used and accepted as the appropriate way of doing this. The nature of received wisdom can either reflect positive or negative aspects. Its negativity emerges in the fact that there are instances when received wisdom can be false and lead to detrimental consequences and on the other hand, received wisdom can be utilized in fostering development in former colonies.<br />
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Brockington and Homewood (1996), highlight that false elements of received wisdom are often as a result of assumptions and generalizations. Received wisdom is characteristic of values and practices which are largely embedded in western cultures and is thus implicitly instilled by colonial governments. Its institutionalization in western countries makes received wisdom more believable even when it does not apply to some indigenous communities. Narratives emerging from particular elements of received wisdoms were used by colonizers in pressuring indigenous communities into changing their practices for the overall economic benefit of the colonizer. Spivak (1999, p.3) asserts that these same narratives have become ideally powerful and influential in the postcolonial era.<br />
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DSouza (2006) showcases an analysis of the effective application of received wisdom in British India. During the colonial period in India, traditional communities suffered in the loss of their indigenous water harvesting systems. Colonialism imposed the policies of private property and discarded community control of natural resources which consequently led to more impoverishment. In their place, they put up dams, barrages and focused on promoting perennial irrigation systems for the indigenous people. To a large extent, this colonial hydraulic conceptualization brought water closer to the people and even heightened agricultural production. Indeed DSouza (2006, p.625) asserts that the British just merely aligned land and water into new social, ecological and political connections which were of great benefit to the people. These technological land and water practices transformed India into a great economic hub for colonizers at the time but in modern times, these practices are benefiting local communities who had to abandon their traditional water storage practices. Similar effects have been observed in the forest policies in India as showcased by Jewitt (1995) and where colonial policies are applied in postcolonial India effectively.<br />
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False narratives which emerge from generalizations embedded in received wisdoms can result to the development of inefficient resource management policies. Jorgensen and Sekhar (2003) argue that these false narratives have attributed to an increasing deforestation crisis in South Asia. These false narratives emerge from overall mainstream ideologies on deforestation which are based on the assumption that the leading factors of forest degradation are the consumption of forest products like fodder and fuel wood by indigenous communities. Following these conceptualization government policies sought to promote forestation by addressing the fuel wood crisis. Such a policy fails to put into consideration other pertinent factors which are likely to contribute to deforestation. If policy makers had addressed other factors like corruption, timbre extraction and expansion of agricultural land they would have derived a more comprehensible solution.<br />
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It is evident that indigenous communities are often burdened with the responsibility of causing deforestation especially where false narratives are popular. However, this is often not the truth as most indigenous people are aware of the importance of forests and even uphold traditional practices which prohibit activities which may deplete the forest. Ideally, promoting conservation and management of resources and the environment is intricately aligned with indigenous knowledge and local practices. Social forestry initiatives should involve local communities especially as they already practice effective forestry traditions. Saethre (1993) exemplifies the case of such effective practices found in the Himalayan region where the extraction of biomass resources does not include cutting down trees. Similarly, Sharma and Shaw (1993) illustrate that communities which live near forests in Nepal rely on dry wood for fuel and also utilize grass for hay without engaging in any felling of trees. Other factors like traditional rights, non use of tree species and religious practices are also influential in regulating environmental resource management.<br />
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Clearly there is an eminent power struggle between received wisdom and indigenous knowledge. While received wisdom seems to work in some former colonies, indigenous knowledge is working for others. However, they both bear strengths and weaknesses which should be addressed in post modern colonialism. Limitations of indigenous knowledge are observed in the collapse of Easter Island in Polynesia where the overdependence of local people on the environment contributed to its collapse. Post modern colonialism calls for the integration of indigenous and western knowledge in fostering development, resource and environmental management. This integrative framework will allow indigenous communities to preserve their traditions and at the same time benefit from modern technological practices. They will have shifted to focusing their attention to aspects of political and social context which are also instrumental in development. Furthermore, modernity has introduced many new concepts in the utilization and application of various ideologies such that it is inevitable that indigenous communities will have to adjust to modern times.<br />
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Indeed, if proponents of indigenous practices wish to preserve indigenous knowledge in modern times they should adopt conservation methods which are politically engaging. In consideration that most of them are keen to alienate indigenous knowledge as an individual entity, Briggs and Sharp (2004) caution that failing to engage other development ideologies results to the subsequent failure to develop effective alternatives which can be even more beneficial. As such, instead of engaging in an indigenous vs. western debate, indigenous knowledge proponents should reorient and influence state policies which do not consider the integral role played by local people in environmental conservation into adapting indigenous friendly dimensions. Furthermore, in colonial management focus should not be on making distinctions between indigenous knowledge and received wisdom rather it should lie in reconciling these differences. An element which is of great importance in managing colonial legacy is the recognition and realization that all forms of knowledge are useful but to particular groups of people. Also, the different ways in which this knowledge is disseminated and utilized in environmental conservation will similarly benefit different groups of people. It is only after this realization that knowledge can be utilized effectively for the benefit of the entire society.<br />
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Heaven, Owen and Okonkwo (2010) set out to investigate the place of received wisdom in colonial legacy management. The above discussion comprehensively supports their conceptualizations of the interplay between indigenous knowledge and received wisdom. Indigenous knowledge has been indicated to refer to shared knowledge within a community which has evolved through practice over the years and is culturally embedded in those communities. On the other hand, received wisdom represents widely recognized information which is held to be true and more often than not, it is constructed under western ideals of development. This dichotomy of knowledge has served former colonies differently and in the illustrations provided it is evident that both indigenous and received wisdoms can accrue adverse repercussions. Although post modern colonialism reflects inevitability for changes especially in indigenous knowledge practices, it is pertinent that this knowledge is incorporated in modern day environmental conservation and management paradigms. Indigenous people have practices which are instrumental in the conservation of forests and instead of being sidelined during policy formulation and implementation they should be involved in these processes. On the other hand, indigenous people must also appreciate the benefits which are derived from western technological practices and endeavor to integrate them as well. This integrative process is a rather delicate one where extensive awareness as an initial action can be fundamental in starting a change process where a holistic conceptualization of knowledge will be achieved.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-82226795266444454772017-02-18T06:44:00.000-08:002017-02-18T06:44:07.500-08:00Southeast Asia Drought Triggers Debate over Regions Water Resources In this Voice of America article the author explains the water crisis as a result of current drought in Southeast Asia and ongoing debate on the vital water resources. The primary vital water source in the region is the Mekong River, which flows approximately 4,000 miles from Tibet to Vietnam, runs through 6 countries. It is the fundamental source of drinking water, as well as agriculture, fishing, industry and power generation.<br />
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Recently the Mekong has shown lowest water levels in 50 years, which have led to concerns among the countries through which the river flows. According to many residents in northern Thailand, the river has never seen that low in their lifetime, and they worried that drinking water can become a problem soon. The primary reason behind this severe water shortage is the more than normal dry season in the region. It has alone affected 6.5 million hectares of crop and 20 million people.<br />
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According to an ADP engineer, this drought is really severe and lowering water levels in the Mekong basin will affect more crops and even will cause salty ocean water to come in Vietnams fertile Mekong basin area. Many environmentalists accuse large number of damming of the river of the low level of water in the river. They mostly criticize Chinas management of the river and building of dams on it. China rejects the accusations, as well as the Mekong River Commission also dismisses the idea and claims that dams have slowed the lowering of water level instead.<br />
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At the moment China and Thailand are holding talks on the river management, as there are fears of conflict on water resources due to rising population and increasing scarcity of water resources in the region. United Nations Social and Economic Commission for Asia also expressed similar concerns in its report released in March 2010.<br />
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The authors viewpoint does not seem to be biased, as the authors report and conclusion regarding the scarcity of water resources in the Mekong river area has substantial support and evidence. Moreover the authors conclusion that the shortage of water in the river would led to conflict leading to war is a sheer possibility, primarily because most of the dams constructed on the river are in China and no country in the region is capable to engage with China militarily. The only possible conflict will lead to regional dialogue which would finally result in cooperation and compromise between the nations on the management of water resources. China will be the country to compromise more than any one.<br />
Part 2 Discussions on Others Work<br />
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Discussion on Summary1<br />
I agree with the writer that China has major water shortage problems, particularly in the North China Plain region and that extensive measures are required to overcome this shortage. Writers assessment on the issue is sound and gives us a balanced and unbiased insight on the issues raised by the article. Despite having acute water shortages Chinese plan to diverge large amount of water from the southern river systems is not only very costly, but its environmental hazards are not deniable. It will nearly destroy the entire ecosystem of the region. Other choices like artificial rain etc. should also be considered before carrying on this project.<br />
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Discussion on Summary2<br />
The writers opinion regarding the newly discovered bacteria, which would help purify water is agreeable, but as the author has mentioned there is no discussion on the side affects of large scale use on uncontrolled water resources. I think that it would be better to first determine all the possible affects on the ecosystem on rivers and streams before practically applying this method for purification. bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-12139031478065184422017-02-18T06:35:00.001-08:002017-02-18T06:35:19.227-08:00IUB Emergency and Disaster Planed review and Analysis plus my personal emergencyA. SPECIFIC THREATS<br />
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Air pollution<br />
This event could affect students and staff who are susceptible to respiratory problems. The following principles should be observed.<br />
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a. A file of students and staff who have or are susceptible to respiratory problems. The file should contain data on the location of such persons at different times during the day.<br />
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b. When notified from district via news media of a smog advisory, the principal shall inform all staff and notify those individuals in file to stay indoors and minimize physical activity.<br />
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c. Cancel all athletic competitions and practices and any other activities which require strenuous physical activity such as marching band, etc.<br />
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d. Cancel any events, which require the use of vehicles.<br />
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Bomb threats<br />
In the event that the university receives a bomb threat, by letter or telephone, the following procedures will be accomplished.<br />
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a. If the bomb threat is in the form of a letter, note the manner in which it was delivered, who found it and where it was found. Take care while handling the message by immediately placing it in an envelope so that possible fingerprints may be detected.<br />
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b. If the bomb threat is a telephone call, keep the caller on the line. Delay the caller with statements such as I am sorry, I did not understand you. What did you say Note the time the call was received, manner of caller, background noises and what the caller is saying. Use the following guidelines that follow to assist you.<br />
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Immediately notify the police and fire departments (or designee) (call 911). If the caller is still on the phone, call the phone company to trace the call. Instruct staff and students to turn off any pagers, cellular phones or two-way radios. Do not use these devices during this threat. Caution students against picking up or touching any strange objects or packages. If the suspected bomb is in a corridor, modify evacuation routes to bypass the corridor. Evacuate students using primary and alternate routes. Take emergency backpack and student kits. Check to be sure all students have left the building. Upon arrival at the designated safe site, take roll. Notify the designee and emergency response personnel of any missing students. Does not return to the building until emergency response officials determine it is safe.<br />
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3. Chemical accident<br />
Chemical accidents of a disaster magnitude could result from a transportation accident or an industrial accident. Should any such accidents endanger the students or staff, the following will be accomplished. An alert message will be broadcast over the school weather Radio and the safety siren may be heard.<br />
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The following should be observed<br />
Have all students report to nearest designated building. Close all doors and windows, shut off ventilation, and listen to the radio (shelter-in-place). Take roll. Notify designee of any missing students. If necessary, use tape, rags, clothing or any other available material of seal air leaks. Continue to shelter in the place unless advised to do otherwise. Monitor and radio station for further instructions. If you believe that gas is entering the building, protect everyone with a wet cloth or towel over the mouth and nose. Have everyone breathe in short, quick shallow breaths. If evacuation orders are received, proceed with evacuation plan. Evacuate students. A check should be performed to be sure all students have been evacuated.<br />
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4. Threat of explosion<br />
This incident could be the result of spilled cleaning chemicals within the school building, in the university lab, a material a student brings to university, or a broken gas main. Should any such accidents endanger the students or staff, take the following actions<br />
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Determine if evacuation is required. Notify appropriate local authorities of incident (call 911). If necessary, proceed with evacuation procedure using primary or alternate routes, avoiding exposure to the chemical fumes. Evacuate students from the building using primary andor alternate fire routes (p.14). Check to be sure all students have left the building. Students are to remain quiet during evacuation. Upon arrival at evacuation site, take roll and report attendance to designee immediately. Notify emergency response personnel of any missing students. Do not return to the building until emergency response personnel have determined it is safe.<br />
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5. Fire<br />
This incident could occur if the school building is on fire should any such event endanger the students or staff, the following will be accomplished.<br />
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Notify the fire Department (call 911). Proceed to evacuate the school using the primary or alternate fire routes. An inspection will be performed to be sure all students and personnel have left the building. Evacuate students from the building using primary or alternate fire routes. Take emergency backpack and student kits. Maintain<br />
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Control of the students a safe distance from the fire and fire fighting equipment. Report any missing students to the designee and emergency response personnel. Do not return to the building until the Fire Department determines it is safe.<br />
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6. Earthquake<br />
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If indoors<br />
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Stay inside, move away from windows, shelves, heavy objects or furniture which may fall over. Take cover under a table or desk. Instruct the students to DUCK-COVER-HOLD.<br />
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In halls, stairways, or other areas where cover is not available, move to an interior wall.<br />
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In library, immediately move away from windows and bookshelves. Take appropriate cover.<br />
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In laboratories, all burners should be extinguished (if possible) before taking cover. Stay clear of hazardous chemicals, which may spill.<br />
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In the multi-use room, take cover under the tables or move close to the interior walls away from windows.<br />
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If outdoors<br />
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Move to an open space, away from buildings and overhead power lines. Lie down or crouch low to the ground (legs will not be steady). Keep looking around to be aware of dangers, which may demand movement.<br />
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7. Tornado<br />
Severe weather can be accompanied by high winds. If this type of weather poses any risk to the staff or students the following shall be accomplished.<br />
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An alert message will be broadcast over the weather radio (WTTS, 92.3 FM is the local Emergency Alert System station for Bartholomew, Brown, Decatur, Jackson, Lawrence and Monroe Counties.)Staff and students should take cover in the shielded areas within the building. Stay away from windows. Close all blinds and curtains. Avoid auditoriums, gymnasiums and other structures with large roof spans. Monitor weather radio and AM radio station. Notify utility companies of any break or suspected break in utility lines.<br />
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8. Threatening individual<br />
This incident could occur if a belligerent person or armed person appeared at the school site. Should such an individual threaten the safety of students or staff, the following shall be accomplished.<br />
Notify police (dial 911). Keep calm. If an individual is armed with any type of weapon, USE EXTREME<br />
CAUTION. Do not attempt to remove the weapon from their possession, allow police to do so.<br />
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B. CRITICAL REVIEW AND ANALYSIS<br />
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Operations section<br />
An emergency operations center team should be put in place. The Emergency Operations Center (EOC) Team will coordinate the formation and actions of the other teams. They will communicate directly with Emergency Response personnel and the District Office. All activities from the other teams should be reported to the EOC. This team is responsible for personnel issues. This team should document any costs incurred during this emergency.<br />
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A minimum number of 4 staff or student volunteers should be developed to serve as the EOC Team. The designee should head the team. One person on the team should be responsible for communications. One person on the team should be responsible for accounting for students and staff.<br />
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Emergency services section<br />
This will include<br />
The search and rescue team which will need to sweep quickly through the school buildings to identify location of trapped or injured students and staff. They will rescue the trapped and the injured and assist the First Aid Team in treating the injured. In addition, they should help suppress fires. Teams of 5 staff or student volunteers should be developed as needed. Custodians may not be a good choice for this team as they will be needed to assist with other urgent tasks such as shutting off utilities.<br />
The First Aid team should establish the first aid treatment areas, triage, and provide first aid to people arriving at these areas. This team will need to coordinate with the Search and Rescue Team. Teams of staff or student volunteers should be developed. These individuals should be trained in First Aid and CPR.<br />
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Law enforcement<br />
The following law provisions should be observed.<br />
Title 24, California Code of Regulations prescribes standards for the design and construction of public schools. However, non-structural seismic safety elements receive limited attention. Non-structural elements include anything, which is not part of the columns, beams, and load-bearing walls these light fixtures, bookcases filing cabinets and windows can pose life safety threats during an earthquake.<br />
Title 8, California General Industry Safety Orders, Section 3203 requires that every employer inaugurate and maintain an accident prevention program which shall include, but not be limited to, a training program to instruct employees in general safe work practices and specific instructions with respect to hazards unique to the employees job assignment and the scheduling of periodic inspections to identify and correct unsafe conditions and work practices which may be found.<br />
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Support section (human and infrastructure)<br />
A team developed for the support activity should facilitate and coordinate food supplies, meal preparation, meal distribution, water distribution and sanitation set-up. the team should compose of staff and student volunteers. For instance before the earthquake, the following should be done<br />
Inventory all food, water, cooking and sanitation supplies. Check expiration dates, replace out-dated supplies.<br />
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Determine the best location of food preparation, food service, and water distribution. In addition, determine a location for the sanitation tents or shelters away from the food preparation area.<br />
Immediately after the earthquake Report to the Emergency Operations Center. Set up cooking area, water distribution area and sanitation areas. Do not allow waste from sanitation area to come within 200 feet of students or foodwater supplies. Set up sheltering tents as necessary to protect the students from the elements.<br />
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C. PERSONAL SAFETY<br />
Preventing accidents from occurring in the first place is the best method of mitigating these disasters. Fires, chemical spills, technological and transportation accidents are all hazards that are essentially preventable. The focus of disaster mitigation for these human-made disasters is preventing the hazards from occurring or reducing their impact if they do.<br />
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Local capacity building measures seek to reduce human vulnerability by building and reinforcing a local communitys skills, organizational systems and abilities and offering incentives to reduce risks. They also help communities prepare to respond effectively in case of disasters.<br />
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Since members of the local population of disaster-stricken areas are the first ones at the disaster siteperforming search and rescue activities as well as providing emergency treatment and relief to their families, friends and neighborsorganizations such as Red CrossRed Crescent Societies and the local Civil Defense can play an important role in improving the skills and knowledge of these spontaneous disaster responders. Offering education and training in preparedness measures, basic rescue techniques, and first aid and emergency treatment is an important component of risk reduction plans.<br />
These organizations might also play a role in helping to organize local populations or settlements around specific risk reduction or mitigation activities. Local areas often have the technology or knowledge required to reduce their own vulnerability but may be missing some key local or social structure that prevents them from realizing the benefits of vulnerability reduction.<br />
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General risk reduction strategies<br />
In case of earthquakes, the government can also ensure that important public sector buildings are constructed according to high engineering design standards.<br />
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Flood effects can be reduced by the use of hazard resistant designs such as raising living or working spaces high above the possible flood level.<br />
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Tornadoes can be delt with by ensuring a public that is well informed regarding the hazard and an effective warning system.<br />
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Chemical and industrial accidents can be reduced by improving safety standards in plant and equipment design, by anticipating possible hazards in plant design, by developing safe design and operating procedures, by safe and regulated disposal of hazardous materials, and through proper preparedness planning.<br />
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D. CONCLUSION<br />
The following considerations should be observed in line with recommendations for improving the emergency and disaster plan for the university.<br />
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A qualified structural andor civil engineer should perform the hazard assessment of the university site where appropriate. The interior and exterior portions of the school buildings as well as the university grounds should be<br />
assessed for potential hazards.<br />
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The hazard assessment should include evaluation of the following potential hazards to impact the school site, staff or students<br />
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Proximity of toxic, flammable, corrosive, chemically reactive or radioactive material, including proximity to industry and trucking and railroad routes.<br />
Proximity of high voltage power lines.<br />
Proximity to fault lines<br />
Likelihood and possible effects of flooding, including proximity to dams in the event of their failure.<br />
Likelihood and possible effects of a Wildland fire.<br />
Likelihood and possible effects of severe weather.<br />
Probable safety areas for evacuation, after earthquake or other disaster. Consider the proximity of gas, water and sewer lines locating these areas.<br />
Locations of interior hanging fixtures on ceilings, etc. such as fluorescent lights.<br />
Locations of windows, particularly those near doorways.<br />
Stability of bookcases and shelving in classrooms as well as the objects on the shelves, cabinets and hanging on walls.<br />
Stability of water heaters.<br />
Security of AV equipment, computers, TV monitors, aquariums, etc. from motion during an earthquake.<br />
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An effort should be made to remove or correct the identified hazards to the school site if possible<br />
to do so. This can be done by an independent risk manager.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-74645204748245553462017-02-18T06:33:00.001-08:002017-02-18T06:33:14.620-08:00Renewable Energy Sources on Flight for a Better SocietyHumanity cannot predict the exact date as to when fossil fuels will be depleted, but one thing is for sure, non-renewable resources are asymptotic to its depletion. With the worlds inevitable dependence on gas and oil, those sources will surely become depleted in just a matter of time. In light with that agony, scientists and environmentalists have always pushed intense study and breakthroughs in the field of renewable energy sources. Renewable sources refer to solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric energy, nuclear energy, geothermal energy, and biomass. As the term renewable implies, these energy sources will never run out, because they occur in cyclic and continual processes. Renewable energy sources can be efficient sources of energy globally, and decreases the risks of fossil fuels in the environment and local populations.<br />
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Renewable energy sources are often associated with green technology because of their minimal environmental impact compared to fossil fuels. Renewable resources do not produce carbon-based warming and polluting agents into the atmosphere. On the contrary, the financial cost of its applications is not always cheap, and is most of the time requires huge investment but when the long-term benefits and profits are foreseen, the enormous funds will surely be worth. In addition, the utility of renewable energy supports a more sustainable use of finite sources of energy. With renewable energy sources, the dependence on fossil fuels can be minimized, or even impeded (Leipoldt).<br />
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The three major forms of renewable energy being harnessed in the society nowadays are Wind Energy, Solar Energy, and Biomass (Lenkefi).<br />
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Wind energy has been utilized since the early ages through the use of windmills. Initially harnessed centuries ago, early windmills were used to power millstones, pumps, and forges (AES 2003). Today, machines called wind turbines generate electrical energy by harnessing the power in wind. Wind turbines are like aircraft propeller blades which rotate through the winds motion the rotation then powers an electric generator which supplies an electric current. Wind speeds should ideally be 10 miles per hour to sustain the swift rotations of the turbines. Each turbine approximately produces about 50 to 300 kilowatts of electricity. A number of turbines powered together is known as a wind farm, which generates bulk electrical power. Wind energy from wind turbines can be produced for stand-alone applications or can be produced centrally for distribution to electric grids, like conventional power plants (Brosius n.d.).<br />
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Windmills served different purposes and are continually being modified with time. Windmills built to harness wind energy need large amounts of turbines to provide a reasonable amount of power. Today, the improvement of the turbine technology intends to turn the motion of turbine blades into effective energy source. In some cases, turbines do explode (Lenkefi 2005). One flaw of wind farms is the aesthetic degradation of the farms locations. Ideally, windmills should be built in very windy areas (i.e. near-shore). The breathtaking scenery and vibe of the beach or shoreline may be disfigured because of the towering windmills constructed in the area. Likewise, residents near wind farms complain about the unbearable noise windmills produce on windy days and even not-so-windy days. With regards to the noise disturbance, conservation orders protect areas of open countryside which prevents the construction of a wind farm in the particular area. In the occasion that there is no conservation, residents protest eagerly to stop the turbines being built. The only viable option left is to use offshore wind farms (Lenkefi 2005).<br />
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Generic windmills unpleasant whirling noise resulted to the continual modifications of the machinery.<br />
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According to Alternative Energy Sources, an Ontario-based company created the Magenn Power Air Rotor System (MARS). MARS is a helium filled, cylindrical device, deployed at 1000ft maximum altitude. It rotates about its horizontal axis in response to the wind, whereas electricity is generated by rotation of the MARS unit, and is consequently transferred by cables to the ground into a transformer. MARS unit is filled with helium that provides the lift to keep it suspended in the air, with the provided by the rotation of the object in air, known as the Magnus Effect.<br />
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Wind energy can be converted into mechanical energy. In 2006, a total of 73,904 MW was generated. The figure shows how much wind energy is currently harvested by the entire world and a future prediction.<br />
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Apparently, the ultimate source of energy on Earth is the sun. The heat and light it radiates are essential to support life on earth, and fortunately for mankind, the sun never ceases to shine every morning. Solar energy is the energy received by the earth from the sun, in the form of solar radiation, which makes the production of solar electricity possible (Solar Energy Definition).<br />
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As technology become more advance nowadays, people are able to maximize and explore the received from the sun. From simple solar cells used to power calculators and watches, it evolved to large solar panels mounted on roofs or designated plants to provide electricity to a household or large electric applications, respectively (Solar Energy Definition). Solar cells are made of semiconducting materials designated to convert sunlight directly into electricity. Upon absorption of sunlight, the heat knocks electrons loose from their atoms, and electrons motion in the material produces electricity. The conversion of light (photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect. About 40 cells are combined to produce a module, where they are arranged in PV arrays at a fixed angle to capture the most sunlight over the course of a day. A typical commercial solar cell has an efficiency of 15 (about one-sixth of the sunlight which strikes the cell) in generating electricity. The first solar cells built in the 1950s even had efficiencies of less than 4. The current goal is to improve solar cell efficiencies while minimizing the cost per cell (Photovoltaic Systems).<br />
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Today, the solar panels have very high prices in the market. But upon installation, and weighing its long-term thrift benefits, cost could be very worthy. In the UK, The Green Project, formerly the Heat Project, was created and has provided insulation measures and solar systems to UK properties for 14 years. This project drove down energy bills in households and also made them more energy efficient (The Green Project).<br />
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Aside from the huge cost of installation of solar panels, which proves to be the major setback of solar energy, solar panels additionally require a large area for installation to achieve a good level of efficiency. Likewise, the absorption of light depends on many factors, such as the direction of the suns rays, the presence of clouds, andor the pollution in the air. Added to that, no solar energy can be produced during nighttime, although a battery backup system may be used. On a positive note, one of the major advantages upon correct installation is the long-term savings in electricity bills. After the initial investment is recovered, electricity will be free. Added to that, solar energy systems have no recurring costs, are virtually maintenance-free and can last for decades. Likewise, a household powered by solar panels will not be affected by power outages. Also, Solar Energy does not pollute the air by releasing carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide or mercury into the atmosphere and it will reduce dependency on centralized traditional forms of electrical generation (Solar Energy Advantages Disadvantages.).<br />
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Either Wind or Solar Energy is often regarded as the most worlds most widely-used renewable energy. But at least in the US, Biomass has been the most highly produced alternative energy since 2000 (Lenkefi). Biomass supplies almost 15 times as much energy as wind and solar power combined in the US (How Biomass Energy Work).<br />
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Biomass energy is derived from a wide variety of resources, such as tree and grass crops, forestry, agricultural, and urban wastes. The conventional and most common way to capture the energy from biomass is to burn the resources, consequently make heat, steam, andor electricity indirectly (How Biomass Energy Work).<br />
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A major setback is that biomass is burned similarly the way fossil fuels are burned. Burning the resources would create the same amount of carbon dioxide. If improperly controlled, this can result to pollution (How Biomass Energy Provides...).<br />
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In light with that concern, advances in recent years have shown that there are more efficient and cleaner ways to use biomass. Instead of burning them directly, they can be converted into liquid fuels. They can be cooked in a process called gasification, which aims to produce combustible gases. In addition, biomass can be mixed and burnt with coal in power plant. The process is called co-firing. Biomass feedstock can substitute up to 20 percent of the coal used in a boiler. As a result, the said substitution can lead to reductions of harmful carbon emissions. In addition, lower operational costs and greater energy security can be achieved (How Biomass Energy Work).<br />
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Some environmentalists argue that Biomass Energy is not totally green because of the implied burning processes done before the energy is obtained. They are slightly correct, but given the conditions, Biomass significantly decreases the harmful effects as opposed to completely relying on fossil fuels.<br />
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Geothermal Energy is another popular form of renewable energy. It harnesses the heat energy present underneath the Earth. Hot rocks underneath the ground heat water which produce steam. The steam that shoots up, form the drilled holes in the ground, is purified and is used to drive turbines, which in turn power electric generators. The dangerous aspect is that when holes are improperly grilled, they can release hazardous minerals and gases. In addition, sites are prone to run out of steam. On the other hand, the advantage of a successful geothermal site location is that it produces no harmful by-products. Likewise, it is generally self-sufficient and has little effect on the natural landscape (Orloff).<br />
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Hydroelectric energy refers to the utility of the motion of water to drive turbines. Initially, the water is held in a reservoir or dam, the control gates open, so the water rushes through the penstock which eventually turns the turbine. The turbine spins the generator which generates the electric current. The electricity goes to the transformer in the powerhouse and is transformed into a usable form, after which it travels through the power lines and is distributed to households or businesses.<br />
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Ideally, hydroelectric energy is efficient when it comes to electricity generation. In addition, the process is non-polluting and it prevents floods. Though, the construction of hydroelectric dams can harm many fishes and species that live on the area and destroy the land around the dam (Hydroelectric Energy). <br />
Nuclear energy is perhaps the most highly-controversial and debated form of renewable energy. It can be produced in two different ways either by large nuclei split (nuclear fission), or small nuclei are combination (nuclear fusion), both to release energy (Nuclear Energy).<br />
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The construction of nuclear power plants has raised many political and environmental concerns. People fear that the energy might be used for the wrong reasons, like for war or terrorism. Nuclear weapons were proven to be very deadly during the war. In addition, the risk of a meltdown is very frightful. It can emit harmful radiation and can cause huge explosions. Amidst these potential hazards, the risk of building nuclear power plants is said to be overblown by the government, media, and the public. With the huge dependency of the nations in fossil fuels today, energy resources such as coal and oil are rapidly reaching depletion, and their best replacement is nuclear energy (Nuclear Politics).<br />
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Indeed, each renewable forms of energy have its own major benefit and downfall. But what is clear is that when done properly, they provide less harm as compared to the use of fossil fuels in the present. Likewise, renewable energy serves as the best solutions when fossil fuels and other non-renewable resources have reached depletion.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1773556883595681769.post-80567354429928481362017-02-18T06:32:00.000-08:002017-02-18T06:32:11.103-08:00Energy ManagementThe only truly renewable resource we have is the human spirit. Lets conserve it to conserve all other resources. The most critical question in view of conserving our resources is how much time we have to make the transition from an unsustainable society to a sustainable one. What are the problems we will face, if we dont make this transition<br />
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Most of us are waiting for technology to appear and be deployed in time to prevent the worst problems that might result from fossil fuel depletion, climate change and a variety of other environmental and resource challenges. The problems we face arent that serious yet as the supplies of fossil fuels are adequate and the issue of alternate energy is well tackle by developing and deploying alternative energy along with other technologies to address climate change, soil degradation, deforestation, fisheries depletion, fresh water depletion.<br />
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Two centuries of unparalleled technical achievement has given hope and optimism that the transition from unsustainable society to a sustainable one will be a relatively smooth. Kurt Cobb has rightly said if you dont solve the energy problem, you wont get the technical fixes you are expecting. There is a fair chance that as we may run short of energy to support the gargantuan research and development infrastructure to invent and test possible technical solutions. What will be the source of energy to run that technology once you deploy it We have closed our eyes to the perverse or counterproductive effects of new technology and conveniently assumed there will be zero side effects.<br />
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When it comes to the debate over the worlds energy future, those arguing for continued abundance reflect their ignorance of the full implications of the terms they use and sometimes they are being intellectually dishonest. The present situation is well understood by the following analogy. A fully equipped hospital with on-duty surgeons and staff may be the ideal technology for a critically injured patient. But they mean little to such a patient if we are in the position of having to build the hospital and train the surgeons and staff before administering treatment. This analogy aptly describes our current predicament. The correct calculation of time will be based on human intelligence. This concern is the epicenter of the peak oil movement. Hirsch report published in 2005 suggests that a 20-year crash program to develop and deploy alternative liquid fuels to prevent tremendous social and economic dislocations. It could easily take decades to replace our current liquid fuel-based transportation infrastructure with one that relies primarily on electricity. Think of the amount of energy we would require for atmospheric carbon dioxide collectors on the scale needed to actually reduce carbon dioxide levels even if we seriously curtail emissions.<br />
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The green optimists need to do a lot of planning and a have a approach, which would require immediate and drastic action to reduce our consumption of oil and to move our infrastructure quickly toward other forms of energy that do not deplete. It might also require some stopgap measures using nonrenewable resources such as coal and natural gas, but only to help us complete the transition. The rate of consumption of resources is not steady across the globe.In fact, for oil, natural gas and coal, the consumption rate is rising exponentially. Calculations based on historical production reflect that the annual worldwide growth rates in consumption for oil, natural gas and coal were 1.7 percent, 2.8 percent, and 4.8 percent respectively. Thumb rule to calculate consumption rate is 70 divided by the annual growth rate gives us the time for consumption to become double. This implies huge increases in consumption of natural resources. Clearly, such growth rates would drastically reduce the number of years of future supply for any one of these fossil fuel reserves.Another problem which cannot be ignored is that the fossil fuels are finite and which means that their rate of production will peak long before we run out of them.This decline in the rate of production after the peak poses serious problems for world society whose systems are based on ever-increasing rates of energy consumption.<br />
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Resource is a widely abused word in the field of energy.Sometimes one wonders should we rely on the predictions of geological surveys for the amount of oil, natural gas, and coal. Here is the crux of the matter.World economic growth depends not on the size of the resource, but on the rate of extraction.The resources that are easiest to find and extract are exploited the most. We already know that unconventional deposits of oil and natural gas such as tar sands and shale gas, respectively, can only be extracted at lower overall rates than the conventional resources were used to. Be aware that resource and reserve are often used interchangeably but the difference between them is the difference between the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea.One is quite a bit smaller than the other. <br />
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Necessity is the mother of all inventions. There is a hope that developing technology will bail us out of the future crisis. So it is important to look for substitutes, alternatives, and alternative energy.Policy makers must encourage the development of alternatives and focus on development of energy terms they will be as cheap as current energy sources. Generally resources that are technically recoverable are not economically recoverable and may never provide an energy surplus. A growing part of the renewable energy (RE) mix is off-shore wind. The Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) has declared that the Global wind energy capacity is increasing by 160 over the coming five years.<br />
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Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar has shown new in the energy future by approving the Cape Wind renewable energy project on federal submerged lands in Nantucket Sound. Similar efforts across the globe should be adopted by coastal areas which receive strong, steady winds. Such projects would create several hundred construction jobs and be one of the largest greenhouse gas reduction initiatives by cutting carbon dioxide emissions from conventional power plants by 700,000 tons annually. However wind energy cannot completely replace fossil fuel-based energy.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><br />
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Peter Freere, formerly an engineering professor at Monash University in Australia says, A single wind farm would not work well on its own for pumped storage or charging electric cars. So it should be supported by some conventional energy sources. The same applies to the other nonconventional energy sources, whose response time is slow that they must have a fast responding generation system in parallel. To make alternate source of energy workable it is important to integrate it with conventional sources of energy.<br />
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The renewable energies are frequently site-dependent and sensitive to economies of scale, because it includes the cost the whole system. Therefore we have to conclude that for renewable electricity generation larger scale wind and marine power are what is required at a massive scale. Of these, only wind is currently cost-effective and that is why it is being aggressively pursued offshore and onshore.<br />
As more and more people from developing countries gain access to electricity, they will increase the developing worlds demand for energy. The production and use of energy have implications for human populations and the environment at the local, regional, and global levels. The combustion of fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide (CO2), the leading greenhouse gas (GHG). Other GHGs include nitrous oxide and methane, a by-product of agricultural production and decomposing solid waste. These emissions from human activities are contributing to recent observed changes in the climate system. While designing policies for developing a sustainable society, objectives of policymakers must be directed towards deployment of technologies that mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, reduce air pollution, and enhance energy security in a context of economic growth.<br />
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The costs of environmental degradation are spread widely across all levels of society, and touch the farthest corners of the globe. But despite its pervasiveness, it has been all too easy for governments and legislators to dismiss either the long-term benefits of ecological sanity or the costs of environmental recklessness. When one nations pollution impinges on anothers soil, air or water, the usual political calculus, domestic costs versus domestic benefits often does not apply. Governments everywhere have a nearly irresistible temptation to let the costs fall on that ultimate unorganized interest group that is the generations yet unborn. As Garrett Hardin has observed, this spirit of a limitless world view is deftly captured in the airline advertisement Fly now, pay later (Or -- It is a bit like the famous Woody Allen line Its not that Im afraid to die. I just dont want to be there when it happens.<br />
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The challenge, therefore, is to promote economic growth in developing countries while simultaneously reducing GHG emissions that lead to global climate change. This challenge can be met through the expanded use of clean, cost-effective technologies and practices that provide essential services and also have a reduced impact on the environment. Specifically, technologies are currently available to improve efficiency in the industrial, power, transportation, and building sectors. In addition, technologies that utilize renewable resources such as wind, solar energy, biomass, and hydropower have numerous large- and small-scale applications around the world and can be particularly cost-effective in rural areas where access to electricity is limited. Use of renewable sources and energy efficiency measures can decrease consumption of fossil fuels with high GHG emissions, such as coal. In cities, where nearly half the worlds population lives, improved public transportation systems and urban planning can reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions from vehicles, landfills, and buildings. By encouraging policies and practices that support the widespread use of energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies at the national and local levels, the dual objectives of providing access to services while helping to mitigate global climate change can be accomplished.<br />
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Along with USAID other agencies must also undertakes activities to promote sustainable development and build technical expertise in the application of climate-friendly technologies. It is important to build capacity to support technical improvements in energy and industrial efficiency, renewable energy, methane capture, and clean technologies while facilitating private sector investment, access to technologies, and policy reform. Equivalent of over 15 million metric tons of CO2 emissions have been avoided through these activities. USAID supports multiple-benefit efforts by providing tools, information, and technical assistance to stakeholders in partner countries throughout the world. The complexity of the problem requires an approach that addresses numerous sectors at varying scales, from industry to the individual. The application of new technologies and practices offers the prospect for continued economic growth with reduced GHG emissions. Recognizing that leaner productivity and greater efficiency are critical for economic success, USAID will continue supporting the commercialization, dissemination, and adoption of environmentally sound technologies. Moving forward, the goal will be to attract more private investment in technologies that meet development needs and reduce GHG emissions.<br />
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Reliable independent figures on cost-effectiveness of low or zero carbon energy generation based on real monitored examples are few. It is important to collate them, because this kind of evidence is what is needed to help determine policy. Legislation should actually remove inefficient and wasteful goods from the market. If the choice is taken out, so you cant buy them, theres no need for consumers to feel they have to be bribed or plagued by guilt to help nature. Like it is happening with old fashioned light bulbs, it should happen with all wasteful gadgets. 56 of people said tax rebates and cash incentives. Of course people want tax rebates and cash incentives and not like new laws. 47 of people said easier ways to recycle gadgets. 29 said information to educate them about what they can do to help.17 said new laws would make them greener. In fact it is environmental legislation that drives companies to make changes in their product standards, save resources, and indeed develop international standards like Energy Star. <br />
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Community Energy Saving Programme (CESP) should be initiated to place an obligation on energy suppliers and electricity generators to meet a CO2 reduction target. Also Orders like order 2008 which looks into the cost and carbon reduction effectiveness of various measures must be implemented globally. As a class, new energy technologies have proven to be quite difficult to successfully commercialize. Often, they must surmount substantial technical, scientific and engineering risks to get from concept to the market. And, to prove at scale and expand to broad application, very large sums of capital are typically required. Without political will to take on energy pricing i.e., taxes and carbon policies its clear that finance capacity for clean energy is currently inadequate, and that only a player of the heft of the Federal government can make any meaningful dent in improving the situation.<br />
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The industrial production processes have become a very important element in understanding the global environmental equation. Whether in the affluent North or the developing south, industry has the resources to advance or destroy humanitys hopes for environmental sanity in the 21st century. We believe that corporations which see this as the trend for the future will be the winners. Those who ignore it or join the race too late will be the losers. The Rio Earth Summit in 1992 was a response to the challenge of sustainable development. It reinforced the urgency of a new kind of global compact to harmonize the needs of humanity and nature. The resolutions adopted in Rio including most prominently Agenda 21 were seen as starting points for policy changes to be backed by concrete implementations. Agenda 21 was a kind of road map, a set of marching orders for humankind.<br />
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The call for sustainable development parallels the growing recognition that the most worrisome ecological threats arise from human actions. The pressure of population growth particularly is working to alter the face of the earth to suit human needs. Everywhere, as the extent of environmental ravage is measured the track of man can be seen as he uses new and even more powerful technologies to cut down forests, divert waterways, plant fields, dig mines and in a host of other ways disrupt the ecological life support systems on the planet. Even the computer, we now know, is an environmental villain, in its use of electric power and the toxic chemical wastes it returns to the soils in Silicon Valley and elsewhere.<br />
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Integrated bio-systems of livelihood and development are in essence learning societies that disseminate information in the use of high-quality low-cost technologies. They emphasize an interactive approach in the communal application of science and technology for responding to daily basic human needs they also generate and support research in the context of social learning and, above all, emphasize that it is the sharing of bio-resources that is underdeveloped world-wide. The time has come for developed and developing nations to join hands and propose new ideas to create a new Sustainable Civilization (SC). A joint study to create SC which combines the needs of developing countries and the technology of developed nations must be undertaken as soon as possible. A most important subject is how to create the infrastructure of SC with respect to transportation systems, telecommunications systems and energy systems. To adopt environment friendly production methods and support the commercial development of new technologies to reduce environmental impact is a suitable strategy for companies involved in natural resource intensive production activities, such as brewers, electricity providers and mining companies. Options for supporting the development of new technologies to reduce environmental impact include participating in venture capital partnerships where the company assists an innovator to bring a new technology to commercial development creating a working group of employees to research and develop environmentally sustainable practices and technologies and<br />
partnering with a community organization working in the environmental sustainability field in order to support the work of the community organization.<br />
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To preserve the worlds remaining species and ecosystems Alex Stephen advocats restructuring the energy infrastructure world-wide to start from a solar rechargeable light - small PV, blocking diode, rechargeable battery, low energy light (LED, cold cathode fluorescent, and compact fluorescent. Industrial agriculture needs to be redeveloped if we are to feed the coming generations. The farming and food production systems need to be independent of fossil fuel, fossil water, chemical pesticides, ever-increasing nitrogen fertilizers and the like. While we have begun a transformation in all these areas, the work remains far from finished. ... How we make things, and how we think about how we make things, must change radically.bloggerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00959827063701472131noreply@blogger.com0