Aluminum Detection

About Aluminum. Since its discovery in impure metal form by Hans Christian Orsted in 1825 (Bentor, 2010) and subsequent isolation in its pure form by Friedrich Wohler (1827), the element Aluminum (Al), or Aluminium to the British, has had a myriad uses in different industries in both metal and compound form. Aluminum as a metal is silver in color, ductile, has very low density for a metal, highly thermally conductive, and can resist corrosion. It is the most abundant metal and the third most abundant element in the Earths crust, but since Aluminum is very reactive and cannot exist as metal naturally on its own, the compound form is more common. (Bentor)

People encounter Aluminum in their day-to-day lives in a very regular basis, for example in metal form these are used in aluminum foil, airplanes, and ever soda cans and in its many compound forms are used in antacids, fire extinguishers, antiperspirants, and food additives.

With all these sources for daily contact with Aluminum, the possible health effects of Aluminum have been studied and debated. Prolonged exposure andor intake of significant amounts of aluminum have been linked to respiratory problems, bone weakness and osteoporosis, and Alzheimers disease (Exley et al, 2001). The link between Alzheimers disease and the Aluminum found in antiperspirants especially have sparked much discussion as some studies have deemed the link inconclusive (Berkley Wellness Letter, 1993) while others say the evidence is strong (Perl, 1985 Shin, Lee  Trojanowski, 1994). As these debates continue, standard procedures are required to test for the presence of Aluminum in both the subjects and the products that the subjects regularly use, to gain conclusive evidence and thus, viable conclusions.

Detecting Aluminum in antiperspirants. The main objective of this laboratory experiment is to test whether Aluminum is present in samples of a deodorant and an antiperspirant. In a study, for example, it may need to be determined whether Aluminum is truly the ingredient that causes the adverse effects, and the presence of Aluminum in products the subjects use need to be confirmed.

The process involves the extraction of what Aluminum ions (A3) may be present in the deodorant and the antiperspirant samples. The relevant reaction for the experiment (shown below) is the one that exists between the extracted ions with the aluminum reagent, in this case ammonium salt of aurintricarboxylic acid.

Al3                    Aluminum reagent          (          Al(OH)3
The product of the reaction is Al(OH)3, a gelatinous, cherry-red precipitate. Taking into consideration that basic pH conditions are carefully maintained during the testing process, this precipitate would not appear if the reaction does not occur. Of course, the reaction would not occur if there are no Al3 ions present thus, this is a simple, quantitative test for the presence of Aluminum. Since no Aluminum compounds as of yet are commonly used to inhibit body odor, and Aluminum chlorohydrate has long been used to inhibit perspiration it is reasonably to be expected that the antiperspirant would be positive for Aluminum content, while the deodorant would not.

Materials and Methods
Preparing the materials and samples. First, a boiling water bath was prepared in a clean, 400 mL beaker. Then, four test tubes were cleaned and dried, and prepared for labeling. The labeling of the four test tubes were as follows Test tubes number 1, 2, 3, and 4 were labeled Positive Control, Antiperspirant, Deodorant, and Blank, respectively.

With the materials thus prepared, the samples were prepared next. A pinch of Aluminum salt was placed inside Test tube 1 as the positive control. Next, a clean sheet of weighing paper was used to weigh 0.25 g of the antiperspirant, and the weighed sample was placed in Test tube 2. Then, another clean sheet of weighing paper was used weigh 0.25 g of the deodorant, and this new weighed sample was placed in Test tube 3. Nothing was placed inside Test tube 4, as this is the blank.

Extraction of Aluminum (Al3) ions. To each of the four tubes, 4 mL of distilled water was added and shortly after, 1mL of 6 M Hydrocholoric acid (HCl) was added to each tube as well. A stirring rod was then used to mix the contents of each tube thoroughly, while it was made sure that no contamination of the four samples occurred during stirring (such as using the same rod without cleaning it to stir all four tubes). All four tubes were then carefully placed inside the prepared boiling water bath and left for 5 minutes. The heat of the bath aids in the extraction of all Al3 ions that may be present in the samples.

Test for presence of Al3. Once the allotted 5 minutes was over, the tubes were then carefully removed from the bath and allowed to cool back to room temperature. The cooling process was closely monitored. It was then checked whether any solids were present inside any of the four tubes so these can be filtered with Whatman 1 filter paper and the filtrate collected in a clean test tube for further testing later.

Using a dropper, 2 drops of the Aluminum reagent were added to each of the four sample tubes and the solutions were mixed thoroughly. The color changes that were observed at this point were all noted. Next, under the fume hood, 6 M ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) was added dropwise into each tube until a basic pH was reached, with the contents being mixed thoroughly after every addition of NH4OH. The pH was tested using red litmus paper, by stopping the addition of NH4OH once the litmus paper turned blue, which indicated basic pH.

Once basic pH was reached in all four of the sample tubes, the tubes were inspected for the presence of Al(OH)3 which was described as being a gelatinous, cherry-red precipitate that would be suspended in a clear solution. The test tubes were compared to each other and the results and observations were tabulated.

Results
Table 1. Results of the Aluminum Detection Experiment
Test Tube Test Tube LabelColor Change
After addition of Aluminum reagentColor Change
After addition of NH4OH1Positive ControlLight pinkPink2AntiperspirantCloudy whitePink3DeodorantYellowishClear4BlankLight pinkClear

The results of the experiment are tabulated in Table 1 above. It was documented that after the addition of the aluminum reagent, both the solutions inside the Positive Control and the Blank test tubes turned a light, pinkish color. On the other hand, the contents of the Antiperspirant test tube turned a cloudy white, while those inside the Deodorant test tube were a natural, light, yellowish color. Once NH4OH was added to the test tubes and basic pH was obtained in all four, however, it was observed that the respective contents of the Positive Control and Antiperspirant test tubes were pink, while the solutions inside the Deodorant and Blank test tubes were clear.

Discussion and Conclusions
It was observed that the contents of the four test tubes had differing reactions after the Aluminum reagent was added to them. At this stage, of course, the relevant reaction between the Aluminum ions and the reagent would not have taken effect yet since a basic pH was required for the reaction to occur.

Once the NH4OH drops were added to the solutions though, and all four test tubes were shown to have basic pH via the litmus papers these results indicate whether Aluminum is present in the samples or not. The Blank and the Positive Control test tubes serve as comparison points for the other two samples. The Blank, as expected, did not indicate any changes in color other than the colors of the added chemicals. The Positive Control is known beforehand to have Aluminum ions, from the Aluminum salt placed inside the test tube, so color changes similar to those observed in this test tube will indicate the presence of Aluminum ions. The solution inside the Positive Control tube was pink, and this was similar in appearance to the solution inside the Antiperspirant test tube. It is logical to infer then, that the Antiperspirant sample contained Aluminum. The final appearance of the Deodorant test tube was clear, similar to the Blank, so it is also logical to say that the Deodorant sample did not contain Aluminum.

The pink color of the solutions inside the Positive Control and Antiperspirant test tubes instead of the expected gelatinous, cherry-red precipitate can be attributed to either a contaminated or diluted Aluminum reagent, or minute amounts of Aluminum in the samples. Either reason would result in a small amount of the Al(OH)3 precipitate, and this red precipitate diluted in a clear solution after thorough mixing would account for the resulting pinkish color of the solutions as diluted red is pink. In future experiments, to make the results of the experiment more defined, and for the precipitate to be clearly seen, a few things can be done. First, the Aluminum reagent should be tested first, then larger amounts of the samples than were used in this experiment can be used (with the amounts of HCl and reagent also raised accordingly), and the solutions should be allowed to stand undisturbed for a reasonable amount of time for the precipitate to accumulate.

To conclude, though the quantitative results of the experiment were not as expected, it could still be logically inferred that the Antiperspirant contained Aluminum ions while the Deodorant did not. This was as expected since Aluminum chlorohydrate is commonly used to inhibit perspiration, and this would not normally be present in a plain deodorant.

Objective
A test for detecting the presence of Aluminum ions in regular substances people use in their day-to-day lives was performed successfully. Other than the skills involved in the preparation of the materials and samples and the execution of the steps of the methodology, both requiring strict adherence to laboratory protocol, skills in analysis and logic were also sharpened. The importance of including a Positive Control sample and a Blank or Negative Control sample in these types of tests was stressed as it was in the comparison to these samples that the presence or absence of Aluminum in the tested samples were confirmed. This type of test can be used in studies that aim to link the presence of Aluminum in everyday substances with specific diseases, to see if the affected subjects really do come in contact with enough amounts of Aluminum often enough for the cause-and-effect to be conclusive.

Also, once the Aluminum is conclusively linked to serious diseases like Alzheimers or breast cancer, and the presence of Aluminum becomes identified as significant health risk, a test like this can also be used to check if existing products still have Aluminum in them.

THE HUNGER FOR ENERGY

Reconciling the insatiable appetite for energy with ecological and economical concerns

In 2004, the world production of oil was estimated at just over 29.7 Bbl. The corresponding world consumption for oil during the same period was estimated at 29.6 Bbl of oil, leaving a surplus of just under 0.1 Bbl at the end of the year.  In the United States, one of largest consumer markets for oil and oil products, from the first week in September 2004 to the first week in September 2005, gasoline prices increased by a staggering 1.22 per gallon to 3.12 before dropping to 2.25 on November 21, 2005.  These figures are quite staggering considering that contracts for crude changed hands at 10 USDbarrel in 1999 (Bilgen and Kaygusuz 2004).  With the emergence of China in the global market and its increasing demand for oil, it is projected that unless oil companies are able to increase the world production by investing investment in oil and natural-gas production oil prices could increase exponentially over the next ten (10) years.

Since oil remains the main energy source in most countries, the demand for oil will remain constant despite the changes in the price of oil (Case, 1999).  While theoretically it is expected that there will be a greater demand for oil if the price decreases, it is important to factor in the fact that more governments around the world are implementing energy saving policies as well as trying to reduce to dependence on oil as an energy source by developing alternative sources of energy.  With the insatiable appetite the world has for energy, the problem that the world faces now is whether or not the existing energy source, oil, is developed or should the national environmental policy favor more the development of alternative energy sources (Tester and DiPippo, 2007).  As such, this brief discourse shall highlight the problems surrounding oil by juxtaposing it against the advantages that alternative energy sources bring with the end goal of arguing that national environmental policy should favor more the development of alternative energy sources.

Given the volatility of the oil market and the economic crisis that the world is currently in, the issue on trading and the future of the oil market is in question.  Barring any increases or massive decreases in oil supply, it seems that the world has adjusted and reduced its reliance on oil especially in the light of record highs in oil prices a few months ago.  Yet, these developments do not change the fact that one of the problems with oil as an energy source lies in the volatility of its price.

The obvious factor in determining the supply of oil in the world is the amount of oil that can actually be extracted and processed.  Oil is essentially a non-renewable energy source and cannot be replenished once it has been extracted from the ground.  The role of oil companies and countries is not in the actual production of oil but in it rationing (Leggett, 2005).  The first factor in the supply of oil is basically dependent on the actual amount of oil that can be produced and processed and also considers the capacity of oil companies to refine oil more efficiently and to tap other sources of oil (Deffeyes, 2005).  This factor however also heavily depends on the capital investments that oil companies make in the oil industry.

The capital investment that the oil companies make in the oil industry is another factor which greatly affects the supply of oil in the world.  The relationship between supply of oil and investments in the oil industry is simply that more investments in the oil industry, such as setting up new refining plants and searching for other sources of oil, translate into greater supply.  Technological advances are slashing the costs of finding, producing, and refining oil, creating a new economic calculus for the oil industry.  Reports however from the International Energy Agency show that while investments in the oil-and-gas industry totaled 340 billion in 2005, because of inflation, the capital investment in the oil industry was only 5 (Leggett, 2005).

Another factor which greatly affects the supply of oil is the political climate of the oil producing countries.  Any conflict in oil producing countries affects the supply of oil in the world market.  Political turmoil, particularly in the Middle East, has disastrous consequences on the supply of oil because of the fact that the Middle East is the largest producer of oil in the world today.  This can be seen from the increase in prices of oil in relation to the events that have transpired there such as the Gulf War, the War in Iraq and Iraq-Iran conflict.

One of the main factors which affect the demand for oil is the price of oil.  But given the fact that oil is a necessary resource and that it is a non-renewable energy sources, the supply can basically only remain at a certain Peak level depending on the amount which can actually be processed and the demand also remains at a certain level even if oil prices continue to rise (Case, 1999).

Ordinarily, if the resources were renewable, there would be perfect elasticity between the supply and the demand in proportion to the increase or change in the price.  Therefore, if the price of oil were to increase, it would theoretically result in the demand for oil to decrease (Case, 1999).  This assumption however cannot be applied to the case of oil because, as mentioned earlier, oil is a non-renewable resources and remains as the primary source of energy in the world today.

This shows the inelastic demand for oil.  The reason for this is that since oil remains the main energy source in most countries, the demand for oil will remain constant despite the changes in the price of oil (Case, 1999).  While theoretically it is expected that there will be a greater demand for oil if the price decreases, it is important to factor in the fact that more governments around the world are implementing energy saving policies as well as trying to reduce to dependence on oil as an energy source by developing alternative sources of energy (hybrid cars, solar power, hydroelectric power).  The fact that oil is a non-renewable resource must also be considered.

The current technology that is available or that will be available in the near future also does not provide any respite.  Any technology that runs on fossil fuels will invariably let of carbon emissions that have detrimental effects on the environment.  As such, the only means of developing oil technology lies in developing a method that does not have any emission which is an inherent impossibility since it will run counter to the law of conservation of energy (Pimintel, 1998).  This means that if there is to be any breakthrough in environmental policy there has to be a real shift towards real alternative energy sources that can be used to replace the current fossil fuel dependent technologies that are currently available.
Given the volatility of oil supply and prices coupled with the harmful effects that fossil fuels have on the environment, it is important to discuss the pros and cons of alternative sources of energy.  The most popular and arguably most powerful source of energy today is the sun.  Solar energy has been touted as the solution to the worlds energy problems.  Being free and efficient, solar energy is a viable replacement for the energy that fossil fuels provide and as a primary source of energy it is renewable (Serra 2006).  One drawback, however, is the fact that current technology to harness the suns rays is expensive and cannot be availed of by many, especially those in developing countries.  On top of this, in order for enough solar energy to be a viable source of alternative energy there has to be an ample supply of it (Serra 2006).  This means that a large area which is constantly sunny is the ideal place for the proper utilization of solar energy.  There is a lot of promise in this field, however, and soon, as the technology for this improves, solar energy may indeed shed light on the energy problems of the world.
Another form of alternative energy that is free and renewable is wind energy.  In places that are particularly breezy and have no constant sunlight, harnessing wind energy is a very effective source of clean and renewable energy (Bilgen and Kaygusuz 2004).  It has been shown in studies that when the wind is strong it can provide up to 20 of a countrys energy needs (Serra 2006).  Aside from the energy that it can provide, it also promises clean and efficient energy as there are no harmful effluents that are produced and it does not require as much space as solar energy.  One problem, however, is the fact that wind may not always be constant (Serra 2006).  When the wind slows down to a certain speed it also can no longer be harnessed.  This being said, life would certainly be a breeze if the world was able to improve the harnessing of wind energy.

To water-down the need for fossil fuels, the world can also resort to hydroelectric energy.  Using the natural flow of water and gravity, hydroelectric energy is one of the most widely used alternative energy sources in the world (Bilgen and Kaygusuz 2004).  With the amount of energy that can be produced, hydroelectric energy produces no waste material and no pollution (Serra 2006).  The downside to this form of energy, however, is the fact that the construction and maintenance for hydroelectric power dams is expensive.  While there are developments in micro hydro technology, hydroelectric dams can also displace several communities, destroy forest resources and kill other fishes and aquatic life in the area (Serra 2006).  This means that while hydroelectric power is certainly a very viable solution to the energy problems of the world there must be several things that should be sorted out and improved for it to be useful as the worlds main energy source.

Another alternative energy source that is making waves is the energy that can be harnessed from tidal energy.  Similar in function to hydroelectric energy, this type of energy uses turbines that harness the rise and fall of the tides.  The natural flow of the oceans currents is harnessed in order to produce energy (Serra 2006).  However, due to the peculiarity of the energy source, it cannot be located just anywhere.  There are very few sites that are feasible for the location of tidal energy plants and it also poses a threat to local fishing and fisheries (Bilgen and Kaygusuz 2004).  Also because tides only occur at certain times of the day it is not as efficient as the other energy types.

One of the largest growing sources of alternative energy is biomass.  Since this form of alternative energy has a two-fold advantage, reduction of waste and generation of energy, it seems to be the best solution to the worlds energy problems (Bilgen and Kaygusuz 2004).  Taking animal waste, agricultural crops, grains, wood, mill residues, forest, and aquatics, biomass plants ferment these wastes to generate gases that are then burned to create energy Bilgen and Kaygusuz 2004).  The obvious downside to this, however, is that there are harmful effluents that are released.  While it indeed captures the gases that are produced, it also releases energy from the burning.

The Life in the lap of luxury is indeed a very convenient life but as it is it will be a lifestyle that will be nearly impossible to sustain.  It is wonderful to take advantage of all of the technological advancements that are available today but one must always ask whether or not the tradeoff is worth, a moment of pleasure that could be disastrous for this generation and the next.

Policy Brief Hydraulic Fracturing ,Environmental concerns and Legislation

Following increased economic activity secondary to the rising human population on earth, the pressures that human activity exert on the environment have come to fore (Saachs, 2008). Concerns of the increasing levels of global warming have prompted the organization of international forums to discuss means by which this worrisome trend can be halted so as to ensure sustainability of human activities. Carbon emissions, largely emanating from the exploitation of  fossil based fuels such as coal and oil, have been of particular concern as they carbon dioxide has been identified as the major gas contributing to the  trapping effect  (Saachs, 2008). It is recognition of this fact that governments the world over have been instituting policy changes aimed at reducing these emissions by encouraging the use of less polluting alternative  green  energy such as natural gas (Saachs, 2008).

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases trapped in the deeper layers of the earths core, formed from the of decay of dead buried plants with the decay process being driven by  high earth core temperatures and overlying pressures (EPA, 2010). A shale refers to a large deposit of such plant life that can be commercially exploited as an energy source, this layer usually lies deep to aquifers that are reservoirs of ground water (EPA,2010). Therefore, in order to access these deposits, drilling wells into the earth surface is mandatory, a process that puts these aquifers in danger of contamination. The environmental concerns raised have been taken a notch higher by the increase in the number of wells in the past decade (Stutz, 2010).

For instance  in the United States where natural gas is estimated to production is expected to double in the near future (Reuters, 2010). For instance in one of the most drilled counties , Garfield County , the number of wells has increased from hundreds to thousands in a mater of years (). It does not stop here, in 2009 plans were underway to exploit the nations largest deposits yet the Marcellus shale in New York state which coincidentally is an important watershed area supplying  the residents with portable water (Stutz, 2010). In digging these wells, an old technology that has recently gained favor in energy industry circles, is employed. Hydraulic fracturing or hydro fracture as it is known, is utilized in close to 90 of dug wells (Stutz, 2010). Originally exploited for mining of traditional fossil fuels, it was deemed to be largely Eco-friendly until recently when concerns of air, water and ground pollution surfaced in relation to the process involved.

Hydraulic fracturing involves digging wells into the ground through which a highly pressured mixture of water heated at 49 degrees Celsius, chemicals and sand are pumped into shale (Environmental Protection Agency, 2010). This mixture, fracturing fluid, causes  pressures in the shale build up thus leading to faults being formed, natural gas then escapes into the well to be tapped on the surface (Environmental Protection Agency, 2010). The notion of hydraulic fracturing or the exploitation of natural gas by themselves raise no eyebrows among environmental engineers, it is the quality of the processes and materials in use that are of concern ( Stutz, 2010). These concerns are a paradox as it is a common domain in environmental science that natural gas does burn better than traditional fossil fuels emitting lesser amounts of carbon dioxide and is thus a safer form of energy. What then forms the basis of this raising concern about environmental contamination

To begin with, the process of hydraulic fracturing requires enormous amounts of  energy for drilling and for heating and pumping the water. As it stands, most plants utilize diesel burning generators to satisfy this need, the carbon dioxide realized in the process is of concern but these concerns are usually negated by balancing them against the total expected benefits (Lustgarten, 2010). Air pollution from leaked methane has been fronted as another detrimental possibility,  environmentalists allude to the leakage of methane through faults generated by the drilling process as a contributor to air pollution in the locality of a pad by the gas (Lustgarten, 2010). Although methane is as a gas has not been blacklisted to be poisonous, the danger stems from prolonged exposure even for small amounts not normally picked by the sense of smell which can result in suffocation.

This leaked methane can also leak into aquifers thus contaminating water supplies to the locality. In water, the gas escapes via bubbles and as result is harmless, the danger stems from repeated exposure through bathing, washing and repeated handling that leads to symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, doziness and confusion as reported recently in Pennsylvania (Bloom, 2010). The build up of methane in plumbing system and periodical release in homes posses a fire hazard as the gas is highly flammable(Lustgarten,2010). Contamination of water becomes a greater concern in lieu of the possible contamination of aquifers by the fracturing fluid whose chemical components remain a closely guarded industry secrecy (Stutz, 2010). In addition, for Hydraulic fracturing to be deemed complete, the pumped in water is via the same conduit it was introduced through once faults have been formed in the shale so as to allow escape of natural gas.

The pumped out water is contaminated by ground minerals such as aluminium whose poisoning causes gastri intestinal disturbances  and iron which advsersly affects the formation of heam proteins in the body such as the oxygen carrying heamoglobin found in red blood cells (Lustgarten, 2009). The process of decay in earths core also releases radioactive substances which when incorporated into the effluent may pollute aqiufiers and the surface leading to exposure to radiation raising the possibility of development of cancers and various birth defects. Concerns have also been raised about the massive amounts of water utilized in the process (Lustgarten, 2009). A typical frack utilises approximately three million galons of water per well with the resultant effluent as descibed above not only contaminated but also possing a challenge in waste disposal.

Players in the energy industry have largely dismissed these concerns citing the minimal research done to back these claims, wide spread adherence to industry standards and the long time this technology has been in use with far spread incidents as reasons for their dismissal ( Stutuz, 2010). According to industry research, any reported incident of environmental contamination is likely to be a consequence of irresponsibility on the part of an engineer who failed to adhere to industry standards and thus should be likened to a plane crash in the aviation industry and should thus not provide grounds for wholesome castigation of Hydraulic fracturing (Lustgarten, 2009). Some of the seals that the industry utilizes to deter such incidences lie in proper undertaking of hydraulic fracturing.

According to industry sources the possibility of leaks involving the fracturing liquid are negligible since the walls of the dug tunnels are fortified by layers impregnable of steel and concrete (Lustgarten, 2010 ). The concerns of the effluent polluting the environment are further negated by the manner in which it is handled. First it is stored in protected pools on the surface where it is  scrubbed  off its contaminants, the solid waste generated can then be safely disposed while the   scrubbed  water is recycled reducing the water demands (Lustgarten, 2010). In a study  done about a decade ago by the Environmental Protection Agency  showed that a similar technology used in mining coal was environmentally safe leading to the temptation that its findings are applicable to hydraulic fracturing (Lustgarten, 2010). Much to the disappointment of environmental engineers, these sentiments by the energy industry held sway in the senate leading to the exemption of hydro fracturing from regulation by the safe drinking water act amendments in 2005 (Stutuz, 2010).

Debate on this issue was reignited from the most unlikely of sources, Garfield County in Colorado in December 2009 released the findings of a three year study the  Garfield County Hydro-geologic study  that investigated the relationship between gas leaks and drilling (Lustgarten, 2009). The report brought to fore twin issues. First, via forensic investigations they examines 700 methane samples from over 290 locations that showed increasing methane levels in drinking water that had a thermophilic footprint meaning it had come from underground sources. The second issue was the apparent gross nature of the contamination thus nullifying the notion of single isolated leaks as the cause (Lustgarten, 2009). These leaks were found to find their way to aquifers via naturally occurring faults in a process dubbed    vertical upward flow  and through weaknesses in the walls of the wells. Areas that were naturally heavily faulted were found to have higher levels of the rise in methane, other hydrocarbons and fracturing fluid (Lustgarten, 2009)

The report has been dismissed by industry players who question the methodology of the study especially how it determined the origin of the sampled methane since it is possible for the methane to have originated from decaying matter close to the ground and water aquifers ( Lustgarten, 2010). Recent events such as the fire near a  fracking site in Washington county close to the Delaware river in Pennsylvania have continued to provide evidence to the contrary. For a while now, Pennsylvania residents residing in the area of the large Marcellus shale have suffered from the effects of fracking (Bloom, 2010). Apart from the dizziness, nausea and cognitive symptoms of methane gas exposure, the nerve attacking compound that can result in sensory loss and disturbance has been found in samples of drinking water from the area. In January, 2009 a resident of the area had their water-well blown off by leaking accumulated methane gas despite attempts by the involved company to release the gas via vents dug in the property of the victim (Bloom,2010).

In Pennsylvania just as in all states in the United States and thanks to the Safe Water Drinking Act of 2005, the regulation of  fracking  has been left to the state and counties regulation. State authorities issue permits for fracking with the regulation being slack in some instances as fracking continues unabated by non permitted players. In the Pennsylvania fire case, the residents for weeks had been trying to contact their local Department for Environmental Protection (DEP) to alert them of leaking methane from the site to no avail (Bloom, 2010). The DEP had planned to issue 5000 new permits for fracking the Marcellus shale this year alone before local senators called for a freeze on permits until the national Environmental Protection Agency conducts an environmental impact assessment on  fracking  (Bloom, 2010 ).

The situation as concerns state led regulation of fracking lacks common ground of understanding. As it stands, Alabama has the sole distinction of having regulations specially crafted for hydraulic fracturing . Regulations that applied to other ground drilling activities such as in seismology and waste disposal apply in most other states with few minor changes punctuated along thus leaving room for evasion. An apt example is the states of Pennsylvania and New York which cater for disclosure of the chemical compounds used in fracking but fail to legislate this requirement. In light of this events to bills have been presented both in the senate and House of Representatives dubbed the FRAC Act ( Fracking Responsibility and Awareness Act). They have been co- sponsored by Democrats  Maurice Hinchey of New York, Jared Polis of Colorado and Diana DeGette for the House of Representatives while Democrat Senators Bob Casey of Pennsylvania and Chuck Schumer of New York presented it to Senate.

The bill seeks to introduce federal regulation in fracking with the aim of obligating energy companies to disclose the chemicals they use during  fracking  while limiting   fracking activities in areas not in proximity to water-shade areas (Lustgarten, 2009). This amendment to the 2005 Safe Drinking Water Act has faced stiff opposition from energy industry players who see it as a barrier to achieving the stipulated national goal of a slash in carbon emissions by 17 percent by the year 2020 from the 2005 levels (Reuters, 2010). Among their concerns has been the possibility of trade secrets being in the public domain, an expected increase in the cost of  fracking  and even the possibility on a ban on hydraulic fracking. This led to a stall in the adoption of the amendments.

Part of the calender of the current administration this year is to introduce and pass  The Climate Bill , this bill seeks to introduce federal regulation on  fracking  by introducing stipulations on disclosure of the chemicals utilized while leaving regulation of  fracking  activities within States to the involved states as per their geological uniqueness (Reuters,2010 ).  John Kerry, Lindsey Graham and Joseph Lieberman have prepared an outline of the bill aimed at bridging a compromise still face opposition for a bill which had initially been slotted to be passed last October (Reuters, 2010). Energy companies seek to have changes on the disclosure clause by proposing that the should only be obligated to reveal the chemicals used to medical personnel in the event of an accident in order to protect trade secrets (Reuters, 2010).

Political will has often been at fault in the delays stuttering the policy change sought through the FRAC Act and Climate change bill (Reuters, 2010). Recent reports suggest that the bill may take even longer as other bills such as the immigration bill appear to take precedence (Reuters, 2010). The importance of the intended policy shift cannot be further amplified than by the move by the Obama administration to provide funds for the Environmental Protection Agency study that will investigate the impact of   fracking  on health (EPA, 2010). Such moves are laudable in lieu of the reports of certain symptom patterns endemic in  fracking  areas. This step illustrates the need of federal government involvement in the regulation of fracking activities. It will provide needed ammunition for the fight against environmental degradation as it will supplement State and Industry efforts (Lustgarten, 2009).

As alluded to above, the current situation has led to unwarranted by products that threaten the survival of man in more direct ways. Ignoring ill health and environmental contamination will nullify the very aims that natural gas exploitation promises to achieve. The policy change in its current format is an apt tool in avoiding this unfortunate scenario. State regulation will ensure that geographical concerns which are best understood by the State are managed properly while federal regulation will ensure investment in much needed research and uniformity in regulations that will enable punishment of culprits by lending assistance to States (Lustgarten, 2009). In addition, technology advancement will be let to run its course as energy companies seek to improve on hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling guided by State and Federal regulations (Lustgarten, 2009).

In conclusion, the responsibility that senate faces is enormous in its attempt to enable America contribute to global efforts aimed at reducing carbon gas emissions. The exploitation of Natural gas, a plausible alternative, should also be in keeping with this goal of environmental protection. Events happening to the contrary in the northwestern regions of the country prompt use to investigate these environmental and health concerns of hydraulic fracking in a holistic manner. To be able to achieve these goals, all stakeholders need to be brought on board in a collaborative effort. The Climate bill yet to be presented in the senate offers an opportunity to do so, the window as noted by one of the sponsors of the bill, independent Sen. Lieberman, should be exploited when it is still present (Reuters, 2010).

Policy framework for one natural resource

Allocation of natural resources should be done judiciously to promote development and avoid conflicts. A Major challenge that needs to be addressed by the developing countries is the use of their natural resources in a sustainable manner. Water is one natural resource present in abundance. It is known that 70 of our planet is water, and hence there should be no crisis on its utilisation and distribution. In reality however, only 2.5 of the 70 water presence is fresh water, and it is the resource needed most by human beings. If this small quantity is not divided equitably amongst the billions of people, the resulting consequences would be dire. Global warming and climate change add to this problem.

 Conservation of water to the last drop should be the motto for every user of this precious natural resource and not just looked as a job for the decision makers at state, national and international levels. Are the decision makers both government and nongovernment bodies shouldering this responsibility of effective water management appropriately Hue and cry is made for the shortage of water at all conferences and seminars and the focus is deviated from the norms set to use and conserve water. It is rightly observed by Arunuaha Ghosh that conflicts related water sharing are regular newspaper headlines, yet news touching on agreements and policies enabling peaceful resource sharing are hardly noticeable to these circulations-despite their high frequency.

Probably, this is the reason why the focus is drawn on water shortage and the policies to manage this resource are shadowed. So the future water wars, as predicted, will be due to mismanagement of water resources not scarcity of water. It seems the regulations framed for effective water management are responsible for the present day water crisis faced by us.

It is the inefficiency of the Institutions for the Management of Water and other natural resources, which may be the reason for the ever increasing water crisis and conflicts. According to Maude Barlow, 12 of the world population owns 85 of all water resources, and matters are not made better by the fact that none of that population resides in the third world.

It is also probable that the inefficiencies are prevalent at the international level as well. One wonders why UN cannot provide good governance policy guidance to address critical challenges pertaining to land and natural resource. Is Water shortage more of a political issue A study of various water policies points to inadequacy of water resource management as the reason for the current water crisis. The best approach would be to frame the norms at the lower levels of authority, then gradually integrate them with those of formulated at the higher levels such as state, national and international governments. It is possible that the planning done at the UN conferences ends up diluting proposals made by the participating nations, yet these presentations are formulated with prevailing local conditions in mind. To avoid such scenarios, it is better for the planning to be done using a bottom up approach so that the final plan is an aggregate of local plans.

Need for a water policy How can we balance the rapid depletion of this essential natural resource and the growing demand The rate of water consumption increases at a rate equal to, or even more than the population change. Population alone is not the only cause of stress on water resources. The demographic and climatic changes also lead to shortage of water. Population explosion and global warming together are ushering the planet towards a drier future.

Given that water is one of the most precious resources, its usage, along with its conservation, has to be planned otherwise a desertification will make a very fast advancement. Do we have the water governing bodies that will provide solutions to address all water related problems in future  The answer to that question is not favourable because as of now, we have corporations raking in over 200 billion a year from water related business that serves fewer than 7 of the worlds population.  Such a finding should, of course send alarm bells ringing because it is stark exposure of the extent of inefficiencies in the management of the limited resource.

The water policies have acute leaks, which need to be blocked. Effective management can only be achieved if there is an integrative policy providing for enhanced capacity towards sustainable utilization natural resources. A notable deficiency in the current policy is the general absence of activities centred at disseminating information to the public on its role in the conservation of water resources. As mentioned in the 2006 UN Treaty on environmental education for sustainable development, there should be adequate communication with the resident communities so that they are fully aware of the effects of the environment on human development.In that way, co-operation from such communities can be assured, which may aid in the designing of new approaches towards water conservation.

It is worth noting that the traditional and conventional practices of conserving water are no longer viable as they are fragmented and incompatible with theories from the practitioners andor the consumers. The demand for water, both for irrigation and industrial use may not necessarily be the same in all localities within a region and hence, the strategy for demand and supply should be specific to the locality.

Water for all Policy
A holistic approach to water management was proposed by Asian Development Bank (ADB) on 16 January 2001. It proposed the Water for All Policy in relation to Investments, Project Design, and Sector Reform. The policy recognizes Asia and Pacific regions water management and development strategies. We can say the strategies and planning of the Water for all policy adequately advocates that water is a socially vital economic good. A question that comes to mind is whether the policy addresses all the issues leading to water shortage.

The Board of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 emphasizes the importance of good politics as opposed to technology as the main driver for sustainable development. Good politics will empower the people, who can then take ownership of conservation and any other actions appertaining to that endeavor.  The question arising then becomes whether the proposition made by ADB is consistent with the criteria set out by the Board of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. It however appears that the ADB policies are inadequate in as far as conservation is concerned. The ADB should therefore align its policy so that there is a nexus between its approach and that of the Board of Millennium Ecosystem assessment.

Summary of the Approach required
For sustainable development to be achieved, equity in the distribution and usage of water resources has to be addressed. To do this, clear guidelines on matters like conservation of groundwater, drought and flood management, dam safety and public health concerns on water impoundment have to be formulated. Achievement of sustainable development can only be achieved if a three prong approach, integrating social, environmental and economic concerns is employed. ADB should take this in to consideration if it wants its approach to strike the right balance. Its water for all policy, although fostering integrated management of water resources and focusing on capacity expanding reform in water services delivery, still fails to balance interests.

The policy proves a bit abstract in as far as it proposes sustainable use of the water in production of hydro-electric power and other commercial uses, but fails to provide the concise methodology for achieving these goals. The policy has no procedures for enabling the balanced use of the available water to meet both drinking and irrigation water needs and at the same time promote local community participation in the process of conservation and utilization. The policy appears good on paper, and especially at its top level of application. It however, appears to flounder as its applications narrow down to the individual users. They are therefore attractive in their general application but appear to fail the test when its applicability with respect to individual users is tested. In fact, its promotion of co-operation between regional countries on matters of resource sharing is an equally laudable component of the policy.

The current crisis is not a water crisis as such it is more about management than it is of the scarcity of the resource. It is evident from most of the news articles that after five years of implementation of the water for all policy, the regulations implemented for water management do not justify the water shortage observed in the region.

In its strategic decision for continual improvement, ADB has developed a system to measure its objectives.   Critical reviews are taken by ADB to ensure that provisions of the policy are appropriately integrated. The principle concepts of the Water for all policy have been widely recognized, but the implementation is not satisfactorily progressing in all the Nations as it mainly focuses on processing of loans and technical assistance needed in various projects and supports the poverty reduction strategy of ADB.  

This is, perhaps, the practitioners responsible for water resources management at the local level encounter difficulties in understanding where and how to begin, or advantages of applying the water policy with respect to their actual situation may not be apparent enough. The support system is weak and for all shortcomings the natural calamities are blamed. The Key to Success is to understand what the practitioner needs and the best way for the practitioners to use the policy. For effective implementation of the policy, it should be participatory and involve a lot of education and communication, in addition to adequate research on religious and cultural practices relating to water conservation.

In short, the water for all policy overlooks investment in projects related to water wastage and environmental issues. Modification is needed for both makers and users of the policy. As per the charter for change developed after studying the impact of water for all policy the objectives of the activities and projects do not adequately meet the requirements of the policy. Water management organisations need to ensure that Water related projects do not move separately from the policy.

Modification to enumerate new water for all policy
Policies do not materialize out of thin air perceptions from all sectors must be analyzed to get the insight of the existing problems. Once the problems are understood, issues which will provide appropriate solutions can be worked out. More particularly, more responsibility and trust has to be bestowed upon communities and people. As things stand now, very limited devolution has been done, meaning that the communities and the people have very little power and control over the resources, something that has to be changed.  Without political or bureaucratic bias the policy should focus on the following areas.

Processes and activities for effective implementation of the policy
Environment aspect  sanction projects which will overcome the side effects of waste water and water pollution.

Good analytical tools to quantify reviews
Policy Implementation We need to strengthen the Water Sector Committee (WSC) by forming Subcommittees at state and national levels.  These Subcommittees will be accountable for establishing sustainable development departments in their own regions. In addition, they will reinforce implementation of provisions of the policy and optimization of the operations of the sector. In turn, this will result in differentiation between departments such as administration, operations and research.

Collaboration at all levels must, be designed and implemented for the enhancement of capacity towards continuous refinement of the policy. Activities geared towards this may include civic education to raise awareness, acquisition of relevant information for decision making and building of infrastructure. In addition, the decision makers must enumerate procedures for a smooth transition in utilization of water from irrigation to industrial use to cater for changes observed specific to a region or locality. Innovative policy ideas that often become part of the national norms are generated at local and state levels. This is also a level where we as citizens can have the most influence.

Integrate water and environmental management
The policy protecting water can be further strengthened if it can be integrated with that of the environment. Doing so, would give it more weight and attention, which will come with more priority towards it. For instance, a senior water specialist from Water Sector Committee (WSC) and a senior environment specialist from Environment protection agency (EPA) will co-operate on matters of capacity building and other support activities. The participation of the specialist staff will be integrated in work plans partly through WSC and partly through EPA.  We need to figure out how to manage the use and overuse of this largely unregulated shared resource without damaging the environment.

Specific guide lines for projects to be approved for loan must be laid down. These guidelines should clearly define that the project should meet the objectives of the policy for waste water management and environmental improvement both economically and responsibly.  If there are loopholes the practitioner will exploit the policy provisions for personal advantage and it may initiate corruption or malpractices. The objectives of the projects must influence not only the supply but also focus on quality, price, production, distribution, and consumption of water uniformly to everyone and encourage reuse and recycling of water. As a policy matter expert skills for technical assistance and consultancy for the projects should be a common pool for the Asian and pacific region both. The pathway to control demand and supply of water is possible by coordinating action at state, local and regional levels across the country and finally across the globe. Some other means of conserving water is by implementing the polluter-pays principle and stringent water quality norms and standards.

Quantification of reviews
 New analytical tools which can perceive problems should be developed and the procedures of the reviews should be designed in such a manner that development in all areas of the water policy can be measurable at every level. The reviews should be more of a water audit and not broad based survey with an objective of enhancing accountability of officials at all levels. It is recommended that after the in house reviews are over, another one bringing together government and other non state actors be done.

Water service providers should be assessed to check that they do not misuse their autonomy and made more accountable to improve the water services by reusing and recycling water.Policies for control of wastage in water and water pollution should be transparent. Water audit must check that the Water management bodies provide solutions for improving the environment. For effective implementation of the new water policy, all users need to be educated on the value of water, because it is highly noticeable that by its nature of occurring freely, people may not fully appreciate its scarcity. World water councils proposal that water be fully priced then a subsidy provided was only opposed as a means to certain political ends. Unfortunately, water has now been promoted as a trade commodity, something that has led to corporations making phenomenal profits from its trade.  The documentary World without Water has very correctly blamed The World Bank, IMF and others who made water a commodity. The documentary noted it is these agencies which are responsible to privatize water access around the world.

Conclusion
Let us all recognise water as a scarce resource whose access should not be restricted to anyone, now and in the future. In line with that recognition, we should strive to ensure that there is equity in accessing it and that its allocations should be done at optimum costs so that consumers can reap maximum benefits. The water distribution should also take in to consideration the issue of value. Accordingly, the highest value water should be used for the most sensitive areas such as drinking while lower value water such as recycled water is reserved for industrial or irrigation purposes as may be appropriate.  It is expected that the fund generated will be used to support and implement the provisions of water policy Water for all.

The projects to recycle and reuse waste water should be cost-effective. The aim should be to finally optimize water supply and include assessment of other aspects such as water recycling, treatment and reuse of wastewater, groundwater supplies amongst other things. The policy should address demand management, which means cost management and adoption of appropriate technologies to boost efficiency and devolution of authority in the management of water. For formulation of an improved policy, the provisions must combine authority and responsibility in as far as management of water is concerned. Are we conserving the natural resource without side effects on the environment  Are both being conserved simultaneously for the coming generations  One word answer will be yes if appropriate provisions are made in the policy. If it costs us more to waste perhaps we will not waste.

Major portion of water allotted for irrigation and industry should be recycled water. Recycled water must be checked for quality before supplying to avoid social and health issues that may arise. This is especially so because it may involve underprivileged of society, who may see the problem as an affront to their dignity. If a lax policy is framed, it will encourage corruption and in that case, although the corruption actions may be illegal, the system may be encouraging it and it is thus important to seal such loopholes.

LEAK DETECTION AND REPAIR (LDAR) TEHCNOLOGY

Purpose
The Purpose of this Paper is to review the use of Leak Detection and Repair (LDAR) technology in the oil and gas industry to reduce the environmental footprint and impact.

Introduction
Since the OCS moratoria were put in place 26 years ago, many technologies have been developed and utilized in extracting oil and gas to which have significantly reduced the environmental footprint and impacts. As stated in Robinson et al (2007), fugitive emissions such as hydrocarbon leaks from valves, piping connections, pump and compressor seals, and other piping system components that occur as part of the normal wear and tear in plant operations account for approximately 50 of total hydrocarbon emissions from process plants. There has been federal and state regulations aimed at controlling these emissions by enforcing that oil refineries and petrochemical plants to implement various technologies to address this problem. This review explores the need for these technologies in reducing environmental footprint in the oil and gas industry. This analysis therefore, assesses the development, operation, successes, relevance, and shortcomings of the LDAR system.

Methodology
One of the technologies used is the LDAR which is used to fix and repair leaks as soon as they are detected. A portable hydrocarbon leak detection instrument is used to survey valves, pump seals and compressor seals are surveyed for fugitive emissions. The LDAR equipment measures the hydrocarbon concentration in the air stream in parts per million by volume where the concentration exceeds the leak. The air and any leaked hydrocarbon are drawn into the probe and pass through a flame-ionization detector to measure the concentration of organic hydrocarbons (Robinson et al 2007).

Analysis and Discussion (General points to consider)
There are several ways of leak detection based on the kind of instrument used. The optical imaging leak technology uses active and passive sensors in form of video image which provides real-time information and allows identification of the exact source. This remote sensing option allows the scan of potential leaking pipes faster where an active imager focuses on an area as it illuminates it with laser radiation having a wavelength that is absorbed by the gas to be detected. The Sandia National Laboratory Camera as a portable gal imaging device is used. The gas attenuates the backscattered laser light reflected by sunlight as thermal radiation emitted by warm objects to appear as a dark cloud on the image. Therefore, the gas is visible in a passive image when its radiance differs from the background.

The Backscatter Absorption Gas Imaging also capitalized on Infra-Red (IR) light where the front run forward looking infrared (FLIR handheld camera is always pointed at the component of interest (Fluid Sealing Association, 2009).

Conclusion
The future and success of environmental footprint reduction will depend on the application of accurate and relatively precise technologies in identifying gas and oil leaks. This LDAR technology is a good breakthrough but much needs to be done so as to bridge the precision and accuracy levels. Based on the IR and light reflection, the technology is not that accurate especially in dark rooms or presence of shadowed areas. Remote Sensing technology requires much initiative in terms of coming up with accurate film and sensors. The true definition of leaks in terms of hydrocarbon quantities is still in contention.

Book Report Cradle to Cradle

The Truly Healthy environment is not merely safe but stimulating. - William H. Stewart.

Introduction
True to the quote, Cradle to Cradle, a book by by German chemist Michael Braungart and U.S. architect William McDonough, puts forward a non-accusatory and innovatory approach to stimulation along with sustainability, to consumerism, and to fabrication. It recommends that environmentalists and industry can complement and support each others goals. The mental nutrients are as enticing as the biological and technical nutrients they are offer as examples. According to the authors, humans should try to explore natural systems instead of trying to do more with less resources.

The authors follow the policy Practice what you preach and hence the pages of the book present a prototype for future books. They believe that their book, which is printed on polypropylene paper, is a model for the next industrial revolution. The pages are prepared using plastic resins. Being waterproof, the pages are bright white, and the ink has been designed for reuse. The pages can be washed off and the ink can also be recaptured for future use. Recycling can be done in most communities. Al though not perfect, at least it manages to be a role model for the upcoming implementations.

Premise or Thesis
Sustainability is todays buzzword in design. The green market is expanding rapidly and eco-friendly design is helping companies to stand out from the competition. Green designers  a new breed of environmentally conscious engineers and architects  are rethinking entire product life cycles, from the industrial manufacturing processes, to what happens at the end of the life of the product. They aim to build non-polluting factories, which make products that are safe for the environment and 100 percent recyclable, by designing new industrial methods and scrutinizing every raw material that goes into fabrication. The assertion in the book explores designing products that, once deemed no longer usable by the consumer and can no longer be recycled, it re-enters the environment releasing all of its nutrients to either a biological community or a technical community. Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection center or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials bound for manufacturing. The authors say that one should allow the industry to enrich ecosystems by producing materials that contribute beneficial nutrients to the ecosystem and hence discontinue depleting our limited resources as well as polluting our environment with toxic waste. Another prime subject of the book includes accepting that materials used in industry are actually part of a nutrient cycle and finally designing for reuse and disassembly which involves encourages easier maintenance as well as recycling product components. They suggest that every product (and all packaging they require) should have a complete closed-loop cycle mapped out for each componenta way in which every component will either return to the natural ecosystem through biodegradation or be recycled indefinitely.

Describe the evidence the author presents to support the thesispremise, including the eventsissues examined, their extent, impacts and potential solutions.

It is time for our civilization to rethink the way we live, work, travel, design, build and consume. To think that we are doing our part simply by driving a hybrid car and recycling our paper, bottles, and cans is a dangerous illusion. For years, environmentalists have been telling us to do more with less in order to make change happen. This is simply not enough. We are going to have to fundamentally change the way we design our products, industries and cities. Our current recycling methods are inefficient and only serve to perpetuate the cradle-to-grave manufacturing model that weve been using for hundreds of years. C2C certification, is the brainchild of one of the leading lights of the movement, the authors vision differs from that of traditional environmentalist. Rather than seeking to reduce consumption, they want to help bring about a new Industrial Revolution the reinvention of industrial processes to produce clean solutions and create an industry where everything is reused  either returned to the soil as nontoxic biological nutrients, or returned to industry as technical nutrients that can be infinitely recycled. The goal is to remodel industry and architecture to emulate the balance found in natures ecosystems. It may sound an impossible dream, but hard-headed Fortune 500 companies are already working with him. In 2002 the Swiss textile manufacturer Rohner Textil made headlines, cut costs and won new business when the company teamed up with Mr. McDonough and U.S. textile design firm Designtex to produce a biodegradable upholstery fabric that they describe as safe enough to eat. While Rohners textile mills already complied with Swiss environmental regulations, its fabric trimmings had been declared hazardous waste. To produce the new fabric, Climatex Lifecycle, a fundamental re-design took place in every aspect of production, from the factory work space, to the elimination of all toxic dyes and chemicals, to the sourcing of raw materials. It is woven from the wool of free-range New Zealand sheep and from ramie, an organically grown fiber from the Philippines. The manufacturing process generates no pollutants. Extensive testing identified just 16 out of 1,600 color dyes that met the consortiums sustainability criteria. As a result, Rohner claims that its factory waste water now tests cleaner than the water coming into the plant. The fabric trimmings are recycled with a consortium of strawberry farms, which use the biodegradable scrap as mulch for ground cover and plant insulation. Moreover, the elimination of regulatory paperwork reduced production overheads by 20 percent.

Argument
The idea that growth can be good is anathema to most environmentalists. Take a look at nature, the pair says, and youll see that growth is not only good, but necessary -- that natures very abundance is what environmentalists (and the rest of us) depend on and celebrate. The key is the right kind of growth -- and the key to that is better design. To understand what that means, take the book itself The plastic itself can be reused at the same or a higher level, rather than down cycled, which is what a lot of recycling really is. (Down cycling is reusing a product at a lower quality level, usually because of degradation or contamination by other materials. Office paper becomes toilet paper, for instance.).

Despite the unusual materials, reading McDonoughs and Braungarts manifesto will be a familiar experience to environmentalists, because the book, like the larger struggle to preserve the environment, is alternately remarkably encouraging and deeply depressing. The authors analysis of recycling is very bad. For example, recycling plastic bottles into that groovy fleece jacket means bringing toxic antimony into contact with your skin. Oops. Being less bad is not being good, McDonough told the National Press Club last spring. If you want to go to Mexico, and youre driving toward Canada, even if you slow down youre still going to Canada. But just when youre beginning to despair about environmental solutions, you encounter an idea that makes you sit up in your recycled plastic chair beneath your compact fluorescent light bulb. We often view a world of abundance, not limits. In the midst of a great deal of talk about reducing the human ecological footprint, we offer a different vision.

Is it convincing
It is not just convincing but also complimenting and provoking the readers to implement if not all but few. We all know the mantra, the 3Rs. Life-cycle analysis, green chemistry, and economic experts are among the many assessing the destructiveness of this cycle. What if we could rethink, or reinvent the entire process When we recycle the process is destructive, nutrients are not returned to any system, and the final product is of a lesser quality. Degradation of the nutrients or resources occurs at each step of production. Waste also occurs at each transformation. Can the degradation and waste be eliminated and can enrichment occur Something I read the other day relates to this process. Rather than always fighting ants and killing them to keep them out of the house, wouldnt it be just as effective and less harmful to tempt them away. The concept is as simple as rethinking my management of the problem.

The authors elaborate upon the Industrial Revolution describing associated social and economic benefits, but also explaining how the original Industrial Revolution placed us in this position of scarce resources and polluted, deprived environments. They challenge us to consider a new paradigm, one that provides nourishment rather than depletes.

Is this a topic with which criminologists should be concerned Why or why not
Environmental crimes, noncompliance and risks create significant harm to the health of humans and the natural world. Yet, the field of criminology has historically shown relatively little interest in the topic. The emergence of environmental or green criminology over the past decade marks a shift in this trend, but attempts to define a unique area of study have been extensively criticized. In the following paper, we offer a conceptual framework, called conservation criminology, designed to advance current discussions of green crime via the integration of criminology with natural resource disciplines and risk and decision sciences. Joining hands with C2C looks like a best option for both. While the criminologist finds the crimes, it should also due upon some importance as to what needs to be done to avoid. That is when the C2C practice comes into picture. I feel both criminologists and C2C methods should go hand in hand.
 
Would you recommend this book to (i) friends, (ii) relatives, or (iii) other criminology students Why or why not.

I recommend this book to anyone who endures frustration with the traditional 3-Rs approach and goes crazy at the amount of waste we generate yet senses that other options exist. You may or may not agree with the authors premise, you may or may not think its possible (we of little faith), but you will agree that the hypothesis presented intrigues. Today, we can learn a lot about the companies behind the items we purchase, and once we know, its hard not to make conscious -- and conscientious -- choices. Companies are starting to grasp this, and Cradle to Cradle is one blueprint for how they, and the rest of us, can profit from that consciousness. The authors conclude with a challenge, be prepared to innovate further and accept that change is always difficult but success offers rewards and can be electrifying.

Biography
McDonough, one of the authors is an architect, is the founder of McDonough  Partners and has received a slew of awards for his environmental designs. Perhaps most impressive, he was hired by the Ford Motor Company to turn the firms original manufacturing plant into a green automobile factory, a 2 billion undertaking.

Braungart, a German chemistry Ph.D., cut his teeth leading Green peaces chemical division, then went off to found the German Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency, which helps companies design products with an eye to their entire life cycle.

To McDonoughs and Braungarts credit, much of their book is devoted to explaining how to translate that theory into practice. Their strategy is eminently graspable, for it is based on the straightforward principles that waste is food, that there is no away, that everything is part of a cycle. What McDonough and Braungart add to that chorus is a cogent argument for designing our way toward that economy. McDonough and Braungart are careful not to be too glib about technical cure-alls, noting that the sort of change they propose is going to be incremental, spurred on by individual commitments to environmentally sound living. Consumers increasingly recognize that the dollars they spend support a whole system, and that they can choose between organic food and factory farms, coal burning plants and wind generation, fair trade and exploited. McDonough a

Alternative Energy Sources and Their Benefits on the Environment

Alternative energy sources pertain to sources that are yet to be tried or discovered. However, what is important for the foreseeable future is development of the technology and know-how that will make economically practicable the widespread commercial use of alternative sources that are already being employed experimentally or on a small scale (Brown, 2009). Energy conservation is an objective that seems to be desirable from just about any point of view It decreases production costs, conserves raw materials, as well as lessens the unfavorable impact of production on the environment. Emission of particulates into the atmosphere as a consequence of fuel burning can be to a great extent reduced, for instance, by increasing the efficiency of the burning process (Restivo, 2005). Energy-conservation measures reduce the emission of CO2 considerably and fuel substitution measures hold a large potential for emission reductions and can be efficiently done by promoting renewable energy sources for power and heat generation. If this option was fully exploited, and electricity generation became carbon-free, emissions in 2020 would be reduced by 30 per cent (Brown, 2009). The alternative energy sources to be discussed in this paper are wind turbines, hydroelectricity, geothermal electricity, solar energy technologies, biomass energy, and fusion technology.

Wind Turbines
Wind energy is utilized to generate electricity, to provide mechanical drive (as in pumping water), or to propel vessels. The latter two technologies have been in use for thousands of years, the former for a century. Most recent efforts have been directed toward improving technologies for wind electricity, although some efforts have been intended at sail-assisted ocean transport (Ehrlich  Ehrlich, 1991).

There now are more than 15,000 wind turbines operating in California, producing a total of over 1,500 megawatts of electric power. The cost of generating electricity by wind energy decreased by approximately a factor of 10 during the 1980s, and is now less than 150 the cost of generating electricity with coal-burning plants. It has been anticipated that the cost of producing electricity by wind, at least in some locations, could reduce by another 50 between the 1990s and 2020s (Bahgat, 2008).

 Almost every country in Western Europe is experimenting with the use of wind for electricity generation. Wind turbine makers in a number of countries are developing new turbine designs and studying the potentials for increased efficiency in the use of longer blades with variable-pitch capability constructed from fiber-composite materials. The development of more effective variable-speed turbines also represents an opportunity for improvement (Bahgat, 2008).

A problem with wind as an energy source is its substantial variability however, this is primarily an argument against dependence on wind as the only source and not against its use as an input into a power distribution facility that draws from other sources as well. As a supplement to a fossil-fuel burning plant, it could assist to reduce the amount of fuel that would have to be burned on the average to deliver any given amount of power over a period of time (Ruttiman  Marris, 2006).

Wind power apparently has the great advantage of not producing the atmospheric pollutants produced by many other primary energy sources. It is not completely free of environmental problems, however. One concern that has been raised is the probably unsightly effect of large windmill farms on the rural landscape. Another is the substantial noise that wind turbines can produce (Ehrlich  Ehrlich, 1991).

Hydroelectricity
Falling water has been utilized as an energy source for thousands of years and as an electricity source for a century. Hydropower is usually the cheapest source of electricity. Most of the major large dam sites have already been developed in the United States. Rising real costs of electricity have restored competitiveness to several small sites with dams and have encouraged the installation of generators at many of the nations dams that were built for other purposes. Refurbishing existing equipment often increases electricity output (Chasek, 2000).

Many utilities as well have built pumped-storage facilities. During off-peak hours, water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher one. After that, during times of peak demand, the stored water can be released. This capacity allows utility-based load equipment to run gradually when demand fluctuates. Ordinary hydro facilities can also be used for peak demand. Stream flow raises water in the reservoir during off-peak times, and the turbines operate at peak times as well (Bahgat, 2008).

These facilities, designed to accommodate base load coal and nuclear generating plants, will turn out to be extremely convenient for supply systems with solar-electric and wind-electric components. The reservoirs turned out to be the chief storage medium to accommodate fluctuations in output (Ottinger  Williams, 2002).

Geothermal Electricity
Geothermal steam has been used commercially to produce electricity at Laradello, Italy since 1904. Low-temperature geothermal resources are being developed quickly for space heat. Some researchers do not group this resource with other renewable energies on grounds that it is subject to depletion. However, it appears to be capable of producing heat for an indefinite period if withdrawal rates are cautiously established. Old Faithful has been releasing heat to the atmosphere for a very long time (Ehrlich  Ehrlich, 1991). Presently, most geothermal electricity comes from dry steam that drives conventional combustion turbines. This is a small fraction of the total geothermal heat resources. A large expansion of geothermal electricity supply consequently depends on technologies that use steam-hot water mixtures, or hot water alone. The resource is even larger if heat from hot, dry rocks can be tapped. Numerous plants generating electricity from hot water are now running on a pilot basis (Bahgat, 2008).

Solar Energy Technologies
The sun can be used to produce energy in various ways. The use of solar panels and heat-storage systems to heat buildings is a comparatively well- established technology. A variety of techniques are being examined for using the sun to generate electricity (Glaser, 1994). Among them are photovoltaic technology, in which photons make an electric current when absorbed in a semiconductor, and solar thermal electric technology, in which reflected solar radiation is used to heat a fluid to the point at which it can make steam that can be used to drive a turbine generator (Cairns, 2006).

Production of photovoltaic power has reduced in cost by about a factor of five to ten since the 1980s. Further cost reductions, probably by another order of magnitude, are expected in the 1990s (Glaser, 1994). Some experts think that megawatt power plants based on solar cells could be in use, and become competitive with other means of energy production, by the turn of the century. Improvements in the technology are being made along several lines, including the development of low-cost photovoltaic materials, more efficient device designs, automated manufacturing processes, and augmented reliability and durability of devices and systems (Cairns, 2006).

At present, most space satellites of the United States are powered by photovoltaic cells. Solar energy is as well being used to power such devices as calculators and watches. Solar-powered plants can now generate electricity for between 2 and 3 times the cost of producing it with fossil-fuel plants (Glaser, 1994). We ought to see much greater interest in solar technology as it becomes more cost effective, and particularly if the price of oil and natural gas were to increase significantly. Sandia National Laboratories recently developed a photovoltaic cell that uses gallium arsenide and silicon and converts 31 of incident sunlight into electricity (Glaser, 1994). This is seen as a milestone accomplishment that exceeded the expectations of many experts who doubted that photovoltaic cells could reach efficiencies comparable to those of more conventional energy sources (the average efficiency of coal- and oil-fired electric plants is 34) (Ottinger  Williams, 2002).

Researchers estimate that photovoltaic systems should be capable of meeting the majority of the electrical power requirements of the United States by the mid-2030s. They also argue that photovoltaic power has the potential to become the primary source of electricity worldwide by the end of the 21st century. Among the issues aside from cost that are likely to affect the rate at which photovoltaic technology is adopted are the large land areas required for solar arrays, the intermittency of sunlight, and the ensuing variability in the amount of power generated (Brown, 2009).

Inasmuch as vehicle emissions are among the worst sources of atmospheric pollution, the possibility of practical sun-powered vehicles is particularly attractive from an environmental point of view. Prospects for the development of automobiles that can run primarily on solar power were brightened recently when a totally sun-powered vehicle won the 1,867-mile Pentax World Solar Challenge race by going from Darwin, Australia to Adelaide in 44 hours and 54 minutes of running time at an average speed of 41.6 mph. (Ottinger  Williams, 2002).

Biomass Energy
Biomass symbolizes another large renewable resource. Biomass has been anticipated to account for about 14 of the worlds primary energy supplies, most of this coming in the form of noncommercial fuels for open-hearth combustion, particularly in developing countries. The term biomass has come into use since it is awkward to keep referring to wood, other plant-based energy sources, and organic wastes (Barnes  Floor, 1999). The principal method now used to extract energy from biomass is just to burn wood. This may change in the future, as liquid fuels to replace petroleum products will one day be needed. All plant matter can be turned into liquid fuels through a variety of chemical processes. Some plants such as crops directly yield oils similar to diesel fuel or lubricating oils (Woloski, 2006).

Methane (natural gas) is produced almost any time that decaying biomass is protected from oxygen, plus the temperature is in the right range. Swamps, landfills, and sewage plants make methane willy-nilly. Modern technology enters to control the process, maximize yields, and reduce costs (Ferrey, 2003).

As to biomass energy sources that are presently cost-effective Scraps and other wood wastes are widely used in the forest products industries for process heat (and, with cogeneration equipment, electricity). Wood use for residential heat has also increased since 1973. Small amounts of methane are now recovered economically, mostly from garbage landfills and sewage plants (Barnes  Floor, 1999). The technology exists and works to derive methane from numerous other sources  feedlot manure, dairy manure, food processing wastes, or even energy crops like water hyacinths. Commercialization awaits further increases in natural gas prices and further cost reductions in the processes (Youngquist, 1998).

Fuel alcohol (ethanol) made from sugarcane in Brazil and from corn in the United States represents the largest volume of biomass-based liquid fuel now being produced. Most observers think that the most promising large-volume liquid fuel from biomass will be methanol (wood alcohol) (Barnes  Floor, 1999). Research and development activity is aimed at increasing conversion efficiency and lowering costs. Although biomass in the forms of combustible waste, crops produced specifically for combustion, and gas produced from biomass by pyrolysis can be used also for the generation of electric power, such use has not yet reached a very significant level (Cairns, 2006).

Fusion Technology
Nuclear fusion is an attractive potential source of energy because of its relative safety and environmental advantages and the greater supply of fuel. Fusion reactors would not emit carbon dioxide or pollutants to the atmosphere, nor would they produce high-level, long-lived radioactive waste. Fusion technology, in its current state of development, is not radioactively clean because neutrons escape during the process, but there is reason to hope that the technology can be improved to the point of solving this problem (Chasek, 2000). Unfortunately, the fusion process that is most likely to be practically feasible in the foreseeable future involves deuterium and tritium, the two- and three-neutron isotopes of hydrogen further in the future is the hope of a practical deuterium-deuterium process.

Deuterium-tritium reactors are not likely to be used widely because of the limited supply and the nasty nature of tritium. Because deuterium is abundant in the oceans, successful development of the deuterium-deuterium technology would essentially solve the problem of limited resources, but this technology is at a relatively primitive stage of development (Youngquist, 1998).

Although steady progress has been made in fusion research over the past few decades, it has been slow and has been predicted that at least three more decades of research and development will be necessary before a prototype commercial fusion reactor could be operated and evaluated, and that fusion is unlikely to provide a significant fraction of electricity in the United States before the middle of the 21st century (Chasek, 2000). On the other hand, recent developments in the use of short-wavelength lasers to heat heavy hydrogen have led some scientists to speculate that it might be possible to demonstrate the feasibility of harnessing fusion power by laser by the beginning of the century (Ferrey, 2003).

The United States has been involved in a joint effort with Europe, Japan, and the (former) Soviet Union to produce a conceptual design of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), a fusion reactor with a thermal energy capacity of at least 1,000 megawatts. The conceptual design phase of this effort began under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency of the United Nations in 1988 (Chasek, 2000). Some scientists have argued strongly that the international collaboration should be continued through subsequent phases of engineering design, construction, and operation. However, the future of this project is uncertain largely because of funding difficulties. It appears that the European community may be stepping up its research on nuclear fusion while the United States is retrenching (Youngquist, 1998).

The research quickly became highly controversial, however, and most experts believe that its implications for the near-term future are small or nonexistent. The possibility of cold fusion catalyzed by negative muons has been the subject of some interest for nearly 50 years. Except for a short time following the first experimental observation of muon-catalyzed fusion by Luis Alvarez in the late 1950s, when investigators thought the process might lead to inexpensive power, it has been generally believed to be too slow for practical use (Chasek, 2000). Recently, however, as a consequence of both theoretical and experimental progress, the prospects for developing muon-catalyzed fusion into an economically viable energy source have been looking somewhat better (Ruttiman  Marris, 2006).

Conclusion
If the renewable energy sources are fully exploited, then constructing new nuclear capacity and extending the lifetime of existing nuclear plants need not be brought into the climate policy. In most countries, nuclear is the least desirable alternative in the case of high environmental concern. For various reasons, however, neither coal-use restrictions nor renewables are exploited in full with the implication that the nuclear option is being utilized. Moreover, some countries need not pursue coal phase-out or renewable options in full to meet their national emission targets, while other countries will not meet their target even after a full coal phase-out and maximum use of renewables (Ferrey, 2003).

The fuel substitution is relatively important because of a notable growth in renewable, which largely replaces old and inefficient coal plants. Climate policy measures ensure by a clear margin that SO 2 targets are met for most countries. Hence, there is no need for a further reduction by mandating emission control measures to reduce SO 2 emissions, except for a few locations with high local concentration of sulphur. The fuel substitution measures alone are sufficient to fulfill the SO 2 target due to the major reductions in coal use in industry and the power sector (Restivo, 2005). For NO x, climate policy measures are not sufficient to enable the target to be reached. Although energy-conservation policies are relatively effective in curbing NO x emissions, due to the emphasis given to transport sector measures, additional emission control policies have to be installed (Woloski, 2006).

Wastewater Treatment Plant

Answer the following questions based on our trip to the wastewater treatment plant.

1.  Four levels of treatment may be in place at a waste water treatment plant.  For each level,
     describe the following  a) what is this level of treatment meant to do and b) how does the
     Lansing plant accomplishes this (briefly).

Pretreatment
Pretreatment  is  an  initial  process  which  removes  the  larger  waste  particles  like grits,  stones,  tree  limbs,  leaves  etc.  through  the  process  of  screening.
       
The  Lansing  plant  passes  the  influent  sewage  for  wet  well  grinding  and  passes  it   further  for  aerated  grit  removal  process.  The  separated  grits  are  sent  back  for  land  filling  and  flow  equalization  is  done  for  the  sewage  to  pass  through  the  primary  treatment  process.

Primary
In  this  process,  the  sewage  is  passed  through  large  sedimentation  tanks,  where  the sludge  can  settle  and  the  fats,  grease  etc  float  on  the  surface  of  the  tank.  The  purpose  of  this  process  is  to  convert  the  sewage  to  a  homogeneous  mixture,  so  that  it  can  easily    undergo  the  biological  and  chemical  processes.
         
In  the  plant,  this  process  is  basically  divided  into  two  parts.  One  is  North  Primary  Clarification  and  the  other  is  South  Primary  Clarification  and  the  process  is  more  or  less same.

Secondary
This  process  is  designed  for  the  biological  degradation  of  the  sewage  elements. This  is  classified  into  two  systems  one  is  fixed  film  method  which  includes  the  trickling filter  and  rotating  biological  contactors,  other  one  is  the  suspended  growth  system  which comprises  of  the  activated  sludge  process.  Activated  sludge  process  includes  a  number  of   processes  which  in  the  presence  of  dissolved  oxygen,  helps  the  growth  of  biological  floc,   which  ultimately  removes  the  organic  matter.
         
Lancing  plant  involves  the  aeration  of  sludge  in  the  north  and  south  plants    followed  by  secondary  clarification,  thereby  resulting  in  the  generation  of  the  activated   sludge.  This  process  is  repeated  again  and  again,  while  phosphorous  removal  being  a   parallel  activity.
                                 
Advanced (tertiary)
This  is  the  last  treatment  stage,  where  the  effluent  is  treated  to  improve  its   quality,  before  being  discharged  to  the  environment.

The  incoming  effluent  in  the  plant  is  disinfected  by  sodium  Hypochlorite  followed   by  a  tertiary  filtration  process.  The  resultant  effluent  is  de-chlorinated  and  aerated  before   it  is  discharged  to  the  Red  Cedar  River.

2.  What is sludge, and what can it be used for (this is different than activated sludge)
Sludge  is  the  residual,  homogeneous  matter  discharged  from  sewage  treatment processes,  or  treated  industrial  wastewater.

The  sludge  can  be  recycled  to  enrich  the  nutrient  content  of  croplands.  It  can  also  be  used  for  producing  biogas,  using  anaerobic  processes.


3.  Give 2 additional examples of a waste product being turned into a resource at the plant.
Residual  sludge  can  also  be  used  for  small  scale  production  of  electricity  in  the waste-to-energy  methodology.  The  landfill  material  decomposes  anaerobically  to  produce methane gas,  which  is  burned  on  site  to  produce  electricity.

Secondly,  the  residual  ash  obtained  from  the  incineration  process  is  reused  too.

4.  Where does the plant discharge its effluent  How does the Lansing plant disinfect the effluent before it is discharged
The  plant  discharges  its  effluent  to  the  Red  Cedar  River.

The  lancing  plant  adds  Sodium  Hypochlorite  to  the  secondary  clarifier  effluent  in the  tertiary  treatment  process  to  achieve  disinfection.

5.  How does the plant monitor the effluent it discharges
The  upgraded  Instrumentation  and  Controls  System  in  the  plant  enables  continuous monitoring  and  remotely  controls  the  plant  processes.  It  also  helps  in  monitoring  the  Plants  Final  Effluent  discharge  to  the  Red  Cedar  River  for  Dissolved  Oxygen,  pH,  and residual  Chlorine.

6.  Are there any materials that cant be removed from the water
Yes,  there  are  certain  materials  which  cant  be  completely  eliminated  from  the   water  like  certain  micro-organisms,  nitrogen,  phosphorous  and  a  few  heavy  metals.

7.  How do industries operating in Lansing cooperate with the plant to ensure proper disposal of wastes
Industries  help  to  provide  an  efficient  recycling  of  waste,  yard  waste  and  refuse collection.  They  also  assist  to  provide  a  clean  and  healthy  environment  to  enhance  the quality  of  life  for  the  inhabitants of  city  of  Lansing.