Recycling of construction and demolition waste

With global warming, environmental pollution and the mass development being undertaken by man, the planet is under extreme stress in trying to equalize and balance the livable environment currently available to human beings. With time, the degradation will reach an irreversible point and the existence of biological life will be in jeopardy. Based on this premise, scientists, researchers and environmentally conscious governments and people are trying hard to act fast and proactively to delay, or somehow reverse the ecological degradation before it is too late.

The topic of construction and demolition waste has sounded various alarms in the past, but most recently, the stress on properly addressing the issue has reached various corners of the economy. To understand the implications construction and demolition waste has on the environment, it is important to consider what it construction and demolition waste really is.

Due to mans extravagant development needs, more building processes are taking place across the globe. This means the construction business has soared, and with requirements of building activity, resources are needed as well. When any activity as the above mentioned takes place, whether it be classified as building a skyscraper, as compared to a road, building materials are used. More than often, all materials are not used. At the same time, a lot of the material that is used is either degraded or turned into waste, or simply unusable.  These materials can consist of plastics, concrete, metals, glass, or even wood. The excess or reduced waste produced by construction processes, or the waste generated by demolition processes are both environmentally taxing. These materials are often large in nature and have a high density. They do not biodegrade, meaning they have to be stored in either landfills or incinerated. Both procedures seriously harm the environment in the form of waste of space, air pollution and disease coupling.  They not only tax global economies with the need for higher energy, but at the same time cause enormous inconvenience to human life.

Demolition and construction waste is often categorized into two components (Tam,  Tam, 2008) major contributors and minor contributors. The major contributors include materials such as bricks, cement, steel, rubble, stone and timber wood. These items contribute to waste in the form of demolition or construction of items such as windows panes, railings, support panels etc. In the demolition of houses or small buildings, timber wood is wasted to an enormous degree. In the end, the very materials that were used end up becoming waste materials which negatively affect the environment. Minor contributors include iron and plastics which are used in electrical circuits, piping procedures or other smaller panels. Once removed or placed, the material left over is of no use to constructors and builders. This eventually leads to an increase in waste as well.

Background analysis
The issue of demolition and construction wastage has plagued the planet for a good length of time. But even so, the inconsistency in statistical compilations and the lack of data to compliment the obvious, it is hard to assess the exact damage done by these waste materials to the environment. However, research has shown that out of the total municipal solid wastes, construction and demolition wastage contributes a massive 30 to the total number (Kibert, 2007). What is surprising is that all municipal solid wastes comprise approximately 14 of the global waste generated annually
To judge global wastage, statistics show that people in OECD countries generally dispose 5.3 Kilograms of waste per day, per person. The populations from lesser developed countries dispose of around 0.8 kilograms per day, per person (GDRC.Org). These trends are fast changing as the world collapses into a consumer driven society bent on having more than what is needed. Ratios from both ends of the world are increasing, and the increase in overall waste is set to increase.

Since the topic at hand is the recycling of construction and demolition waste, it is important to discuss the current trends in disposal of such items. Currently, the global waste finds its way to landfills 57-86 of the time. The data below shows the percentage of waste disposed through different methods on different continents.

The wastage trends are drastically increasing. The Basel Convention which deals with various issues including the management of waste materials concluded that from 2000-2001, the amount of waste generated annually increased by 20 million tons. The number has risen considerably since then. However, there are certain hopes and silver linings to this issue. In 1989, Nova Scotia in Canada decided to reduce wastage by half. Using better recycling and waste disposal methods, they were able to decrease the waste that ended up in incinerators by 46 (GDRC.Org).

Thesis Statement
The purpose of this paper is to examine the affects of construction and demolition waste on the environment, and provide methods and techniques which can help with the reduction, reusing and recyclability of the said waste. The research will be based on secondary data, and an analysis will be based upon the ideals currently in practice in the global atmosphere and how they can be improved.
During the later part of this paper, various government regulations in different countries and internationally acclaimed standards of quality and environmental stability will be analyzed and their affects on trying to reduce the damage done by construction and demolition waste will be stated. The aim is to provide an argument substantial enough to favor the cause of recycling in the industries producing construction and demolition waste.

Finally, a conclusion based on the facts and data stated in the paper will be offered. The aim of the paper is to augment the support for recycling construction and demolition waste.

Properties of Construction and demolition waste
Construction and demolition waste can be generated from various sources. However, their properties are dependent on the type of site being used in the process of building, demolition or reconstruction. Depending on the site, the level and properties of waste can vary (Kibert, 2007). Based on that premise, construction and demolition waste can vary according to the following sites (Haggar, 2007)
Demolition Sites -  where only demolition is to take place, and everything is to be broken down
Demolition and building sites  where after demolition, a new building has to be created
Restructuring sites  design changes, fitting changes and structural changes to already existing buildings has to be made

Undeveloped sites  undeveloped land, where building is scheduled to take place in the near future
Road side and refurbishing sites  development of roads, and refurbishment of roads
Demolition sites create the most wastage since everything that was once used to build the structure will be turned into waste. Similarly, other properties based on site designs change based upon the structural objective of the builders. Different sites create different forms of waste.

Methods and steps of construction and demolition waste collection
The generally followed hierarchy in the management of waste is a set methodology which goes from a step by step process towards the end of the cycle. This management cycle is often used as the basis for the collection of waste due to construction and demolition processes.

The first step involves reducing the amount of materials required to build a given structure. Using structural redesigns and new engineering methods, most constructors are now trying to efficient and effectively allocate resources so that the minimum amount of raw materials are used in the construction of a building, while protecting quality standards (Hobbs,  Establishment, 1996). This benefits both the environment and the constructor at the same time, since it saves their costs as well. Better estimation techniques in the use of materials and resource optimization, constructors can decrease the use of construction materials. This eventually leads to a direct decrease in the waste produced by construction and demolition processes, leading to better waste management.

The second step generally taken by developers is that of reuse. Materials that can be reused in future processes are collected and stored. Since these materials are put in use later, they do not become the waste that plagues our planet. Instead, most developers are now collecting waste which can be reused for both onsite use and offsite use. These materials can be reflected as roof tiles, fire places, and other materials which can be salvaged from the pile of waste created to be put into later use (Hobbs,  Establishment, 1996). This steps further decreases the waste content to the total since reused material does not count as waste.

The third step is checking for recyclable materials. Any material that can be salvaged and reassessed to create a new material can constitute as recycled. This often includes scrap steel which, after processing, can be used in construction processes again. It involves collecting iron bars, melting and molding them into new usable iron. Even concrete can be salvaged, recycled and use to produce materials for filling holes. Bituminous and asphalt bound materials can be regenerated and recycled in road development processes as well (Hobbs,  Establishment, 1996). These can be used in other developmental projects later. Recycling reuses, after value addition, many of the waste materials that are generated during construction and demolition. Since the end quantity of waste is decreased, the process becomes environmentally friendly and useful in the decreasing of overall waste contents.
Finally, the last two stages are incineration and land filling. When none of the above methods can be utilized, builders are left with little but no option but to either burn the waste, if it is burnable, and if it is not, the waste it sent to landfills (Haggar, 2007). Both factors are environmentally taxing but are methods of waste management. Incinerations produce harmful toxins which cause air pollution and can lead to devastating effects on the environment. Land filling leads to collecting of waste which creates a zone for disease to be produced and is an environmentally unfriendly practice.

Best Method
Based on the above arguments, it is clear that there is no one set method that can be employed. Builders use a variety of methods depending on the site design and construction patterns being employed. However, it is clear that the best options of waste management are based on the 3 Rs. These include, Reduce, Re-use and recycle (Hobbs,  Establishment, 1996). The 3 Rs model is perfect for protecting the environment and observing better waste management processes.

When waste from construction and demolition processes are reused, the final waste content is far lesser in comparison. Thus, less waste is incinerated or ends up  in landfills, decreasing the negative effects on the environment. Similarly, recycling in itself is a positive prospect which has been identified as the best method through this paper. Not only is waste reused but is also put to a different use through value addition. It not only decreases the costs to the environments but to the manufacturer and builder as well. Finally, the efficient and efficient resource allocation and material selection from the beginning develops streamlined efficient building processes (Haggar, 2007). Because of this, the overall waste content is streamlined and only that waste is created which cannot be controlled.

Government policies
Various global governments have taken a stand to environmental degradation in recent years. as such, many have developed new policies and procedures which keep checks and balances on environmental reforms. The wastage materials caused by construction and demolition works have come under necessary scrutiny by various governments and as such, the United States has been one of the first to introduce checks on the built sector in this regard. Various legislations and laws have been passed to enforce more environmentally friendly processes in waste management by the built sector. International standards have been developed which introduce measurement systems to enforce environmentally friendly practices.

The part of the paper will first elaborate on the international standards set by various governments and organizations that have set enforcement protocols to introduce a better system of waste management. Later, using the United States as the case study, various legislations will be discussed that have been created to improve waste management systems and to introduce recycling as the new option of waste management processes.

The various international standards that have been introduced to keep measurement policies on the wastage systems of the built sector include
LEED standards
ISO 14000
CMRA
LEEDS Standards

The Leeds standard was developed by the U.S Green Building Council, through a consensus with various architects, builders, engineers and product manufacturers. This standard set the bar for developing green buildings in the manufacturing industry and providing them encouragement through recognition. The LEEDS standard has a set of criteria that firms have to meet. These are rated on scales and are based on performance measurement rather than other methods which try prescriptive policies (Georgia DoD Pollution Prevention, 2002). The emphasis has been on design restructuring and green engineering to influence manufacturers to develop processes which are environmentally friendly. This helps waste management because when firms are more ecologically friendly and conscious, they have little or no choice but to reduce waste automatically (Georgia DoD Pollution Prevention, 2002). Even if any waste is produced, since the entire process is meant for the benefit of the environment, the waste is not as hazardous as that produced through normal methods of construction.

The various guidelines set by the standard include how far a firm recycles materials, is energy efficient and raw material use. The better a company performs on these standards, the more ratings they are credited, determining their LEED standard (Haggar, 2007). This is an internationally approved standard and has international recognition. Firms vying to take this standard are required to fulfill certain criterias. Once they have done that, they gain from the enormous public sentiments in favor of protecting the environment and also become more cost effective.

ISO 14000
This standard enforces firms to set internal standards that comply with environmental regulations. The concept is to help firms stabilize, improve and become more efficient internally to produce better environmentally stable output. Business solutions, revamping of business processes and the restructuring of critical businesses are some of the roles this standard seeks to play. Since these are more internal control in nature rather than external, they are more efficient in restructuring entire corporate cultures. When it comes to the environment, this standard ensures that firms document changes, train their employees in respect to that and exhibit it in their applications (Edwards, 2004).
One of the most effective tools this standard uses is that it checks upon the environmental footprint of the company itself. Those companies who are involved in environmentally taxing behavior, especially high emissions and waste creation, they need to fix their processes to achieve this standard. Thus automatically helping with the control of waste management. The standard also observes the life cycles of the company itself (Cascio, Woodside  Mitchell, 1996). It starts from the manufacturing date till the point of disposal. This is especially effective when dealing with waste management because this standard actively watches over how industries dispose of their waste. When companies are under scrutiny, they are more poised to take part in effective and efficient waste management techniques such as recycling.

CMRA
The construction Materials Recycling Association is one organization that is directly relevant to the topic at hand. This organization is specifically related to the waste management caused by the construction and demolition sector of industries (G.I.E. Media, 2006). They promote active recycling and waste management procedures by giving tips, guidelines and information related to the benefits that firms can reap simply by being more ecologically friendly.

This organization has actively set an agenda to promote the use of recycling in daily processes. For one, they have advocated the use of recycling materials such as asphalt, gypsum, wood and concrete. At the same time, alongside their literature help, they also help firms wanting to shift towards recycling alternatives with appropriate financial funding as well. They have a direct role to play in the reduction of waste caused by the construction and demolition processes in development. They actively support recycling procedures and influence the waste management processes directly.

Legislations and laws
Currently the most sustainable form of document available that enforces recycling requirements is the Code of Federal Requirements (CFR247) (Georgia DoD Pollution Prevention, 2002). This code has developed a list of items that can be and should be recycled for manufacturing in other areas.  At the same time, it has enforced on federal agencies to purchase such products only from companies who fit the bill as recycling compliant companies. Though there are some exceptions to this regard, this has been an affective influencer on various industries to influence them into the mode of recycling and decreasing their waste production.

The United States federal government also passed an executive order (13101) (Georgia DoD Pollution Prevention, 2002) which enforces all federal institutions to comply with recycling standards. This means that waste management, waste prevention and recycling standards must be maintained by all federally administered companies, influencing and creating a trend for recycling.

Recycling Procedures and uses
To understand recycling procedures it is important to understand which items can be recycled and which cannot be. Generally, items such as steel, cardboard, iron and asphalt are recyclable. There is a general consensus that 90 of all material that ends up in landfills can either be reused or recycled in some form or the other (Tam,  Tam, 2008). Various methods of recycling are employed by various organizations in an effort strengthen their waste management systems.

Basic recycling can be done through the separation of containers. Waste objects are divided based on their recyclability and are assorted accordingly. The items that can be recycled are recycled where as those which cannot be are treated according to normal waste management systems.  Since the division has been made, most manufacturers find the process simple as it involves little involvement from the side of the constructor or manufacturer (Winkler, 2010). However, there is a chance that a lot of material can be lost which could be recycled otherwise due to inefficient training of personnel responsible for container filling.

Other manufacturers and constructors simply segregate items on site. As the processes are being moved along the product life cycle, new materials, which would otherwise be treated as waste, are collected in containers for recycling purposes. Since this is a continuous process, it requires space and time allocation, but the rewards are greater in the form of more materials being dedicated towards recycling. Not only does it help with waste management, it saves the manufacturer and constructor money, since the direct sale of directly segmented recycling material gives a chance to them to earn money.

Another method that is employed is that of time based separation. Based upon the timing and sequence of construction processes, waste produced during each stage is collected and recycled accordingly (Winkler, 2010). This method saves time, space and money to the builder. While this is an appropriate method for many firms, others outsource this activity to firms specializing in recycling management. Instead of the builder investing his time and effort, firms are used to separate, segregate and ship the recyclable content to recycling centers.

Recycling usage is very beneficial to firms if they see their efforts as providing a product to an end market. For instance, cellulose insulation can be manufactured through the recycling of newspapers. Similarly, organic asphalt shingles are often produced through the reuse of wood fibers and recycled paper. Both these items have a market worldwide. If builders start viewing the opportunities as business men, recycling is a business on its own. Markets for various recyclable goods exist. For instance, recycled wood can be sold those manufacturers or furniture. Metal can be sold to salvagers who later use it in other processes.  Rubble can be collected and sent to manufacturers or filling substances. Each recycled material has a market somewhere or the other and if recycling is favored by constructors, not only would it help them manage their waste more efficiently, but they can make a profit while doing it as well.

Economic Benefits of recycling
More firms who are associated with builders and demolitionist are asking for a cut in base line costs. Thus, constructors and demolition firms are under constant pressure to find alternatives to cut back costs. What they do not realize is that by simply adhering to recycling standards and marketing that in the line of business, they can achieve lower costs and gain profits as well.

First of all, following the 3 Rs model of Recycling, re-using and reducing, firms can do wonders for themselves. By recycling, firms will actually make money from waste they would have otherwise either burnt (which they would have to pay for) (Winkler, 2010), or disposed off in a landfill. Recycling, with a little value addition can even create new products for the firm to use at much lower costs that they would have gotten them at had they not recycled. Reusing products is direct cost reduction and savings hand in hand. Plus, later expenses on the same products can be curtailed as well, making it a valuable investment. Finally, when it comes to reducing materials and improving resource allocation, the disposal cost of materials wasted directly goes down. The end argument is, the lower the disposal of waste, the lower costs the firm will have to pay towards it waste management system.

Second, being environmentally friendly can help make firms make close friends with new clients. By marketing their waste management procedures and their environmentally friendly techniques, new businesses will be more inclined to do business with the said firm. Not only this, they will have a positive rapport with the community they operate in, serving them as a long social investment. With more governments favoring environmentally friendly behavior from firms, there is a good chance of earning leverage with the government and taking advantage of the various schemes they launch especially for those producers and manufacturers who are environmentally sustainable and friendly.

Associated benefits for firms
Firms stand to gain from recycling their waste substantially. By using efficient and effective waste management protocols, companies can reduce their costs substantially. Thus, one of the primary incentives of recycling includes cost cutting preferences of firms. Furthermore, many firms look for factors other than money. Since waste management procedures are very time consuming, recycling offers a way out for them. At their convenience, a lot of their waste material can be segregated and disposed off conveniently.

With new laws and legislation coming out in favor of environmentalist and global ecological protection, it is abundantly clear that long term liabilities of firms with inefficient waste management procedures, especially those dealing with construction and demolition waste, will have to face the music sooner or later. Based on that premise, it is advantageous for firms to think about recycling now to promote a better image and decrease their long term liability at the same time.

Finally, firms encouraging recycling in their waste management processes are actively marketing their commitment and resolve to society. They can eventually market this to the public as one of their corporate social responsibility initiatives. The media attention and hype can change the direction of firms working in the construction and demolition business, since this business is particularly associated with being non progressive.

Conclusion
The paper has reduced new technologies and ways of recycling materials in the construction and demolition industry. It has reflected upon the different sources of pollution that are created through ineffective waste management and the possibilities that lie for firms wanting to be more ecologically friendly. At the same time it highlighted the importance of effective waste management in response to the current state of the environment.

However, at the same time it has to be noticed that initiatives towards the setting up of recycling plants across industries is drastically required. Often, many firms face shortages of recyclers in their areas which put them at a disadvantage of using this waste management procedure.  Similarly, new processes have to be developed to streamline current recycling processes. Often, these processes are weak and unstructured which lead to them being cost intensive rather than effective.

If these problems can be adequately handled and more information is given to firms, especially those operating in the build sector, a radical transformation towards the use of recyclable waste management can occur. in the end, the change and transition can provide sustainability to a lot more operations in the built sector, and provide an environmentally taxing industry, a greener look.
Children who are prone to health care problems are those who have been born premature. As they have not been developed properly in their mothers womb, they usually are born with illnesses that can plague them for the rest of their lives. One example of illness that a premature-born child may experience is cerebral palsy.

A child with cerebral palsy has difficulty moving as his brain cannot coordinate orders of movement to his joints and muscles. It can also cause difficulty in using some of the basic human senses. There is no cure for cerebral palsy but treatment, therapy, special equipment, and, in some cases, surgery can help a child who is living with the condition.

There are varying degrees to cerebral palsy. Some have seriously bad cases, totally not being able to function while some only has it mild. Dealing with children suffering from cerebral palsy will be a test of patience, physical strength and understanding. A child with cerebral palsy will constantly need the teams attention. The team has to be very focused on the children otherwise it could lead to seizures that may cause panic in the location. It is very important for the team to know what to do in such cases. Wheelchairs must always be handy and the team must be aware on how to properly maneuver it.

Since children with cerebral palsy have difficulty moving around, brute strength must be relied upon to assist them. It would not hurt to have some big people on the team to rely on for assistance.
Frustration will always be an issue but it is very important for the team to have unlimited understanding of the situation. The kids have to always feel the teams support in order for them to feel better about themselves.

Environment Health and Safety

Environment health and safety is based on many factors one of those being water availability and its quality. In the present day world, water has become one of the chief commodities due to its scarceness and non availability. Moreover, even if available, it is not pure and is infected and polluted thus causing severe damage to human health along with effecting environment. In the following paragraphs, we will be throwing light on the issues pertaining to both water quality and quantity along with a comparison of its availability in developed and developing countries.

Water Quality and Public Health
Water quality has a direct effect on an individuals health. Contaminated water results in many diseases and illness which are detrimental to public health. These include cholera, typhoid, malaria, waterborne diseases etc. Pure and safe water is free from all these diseases and thus makes people healthier.

Water Quality and Water Quantity
As water quality, availability of water is also of key concern. Access to clean and safe water is a major issue since many people around the world dont have this facility. According to an estimate, one billion people dont have access to pure water resulting in several forms of diseases.

Water Issue in US
In the US, effective steps have been taken for the availability of pure and safe water. As compare to under developed countries of the world, health issues in US are given prime importance. Pure and uncontaminated water is also one of the primary focuses of US health policy. In this regard, desalination plants along with water recycling are used to reclaim water for reuse to prevent shortage of water. By doing so, quality of water is also maintained such as it doesnt have negative effects for human health along with environment. South Bay Water Recycling plant is an example of such steps been taken in US.

Water Issue in Bangladesh  A Developing Country
As regards to a developing country such as Bangladesh in Asia, water issues are of great concern since availability of water is scarce, leaving apart its quality for health. people have dont access of safe water resulting in spreading of infectious diseases. Moreover, this country is prone to cyclones every year which also damage the water system. Being a developing country, water shortage deeply hampers its progress as it not only is required for a good and healthy nation but also important for crops and vegetation. Recycling plants are not available there due to shortage of resources and people are forced to use contaminated water.

Conclusion
Water availability is a prime concern in the present day world. Billions of dollars are being spent to uplift health related issues including water quality and its appropriate availability.

Environment Health and Safety

The advancement in technology and industrial development has on one end given mankind the luxuries to spend a comfortable life and on the other hand has contributed in destroying natures beauty and peace. Modernized equipments and machines have attributed to polluting the environment and have thus caused serious and harmful effects on the life of human beings. In the preceding paragraphs, we will be discussing key issues pertaining to air pollution, its causes and effective remedies.

Air Pollution
Our environment is full of gases emitting from different machines that have been invented by mankind. These gases, though proving essential for the advancement in technology, have also contributed negatively having direct influence on human health. Gases such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds etc are very dangerous for health and are a cause of major problems and diseases associated with health, particularly that of children. Most of these gases are odorless and colorless, thus cannot be identified.

Causes of Air Pollution
There is a vast list of causes that result in polluting air. Few of them can be classified as those emitting from vehicles, industrial adhesives, fuel combustion, chemical solvents, power plants etc. These are the primary sources from where gases are emitted that pollute the air and environment as a whole around us.

Health Problems associated with Air Pollution
Air pollution has caused severe illness and diseases to human health. These include cancer, asthma, damage of central nervous system including kidney and liver, congestion, premature deaths etc. These are only those diseased that have direct effect on human health, leaving aside their dire effects on natural environment.

Effects on Children
Children are more vulnerable to the effects of air pollution. The reason behind this is the fact that firstly, the natural resistant system inside the body is premature in case of children making them more prone to diseases, secondly, food borne illnesses (2007) act as a major factor and lastly their exposure to environment during games and other activities which becomes critical for health and safety.

Role of Health Educator
The role of a health educator is of prime importance as it is heshe who has to make efforts to improve the overall health facilities along with educating general masses for its dire effects. Implementation of different awareness programs such as PATCH (1992) and alikes could help build image in the people making them aware of the hazardous effects of air pollution to health and environment. Donations and grants from government and NGOs could help in assisting finances of such a project which can be implemented by distribution of pamphlets, making health awareness camps along with other such programs.

Conclusion
Pollution in the environment is not only detrimental to health but also to the environment as a whole. Effective measures need to be taken to develop general awareness amongst the masses for its prevention and control especially amongst children.
In two or three sentences, describe the key differences between power and energy. (5 marks)

The dictionary defines energy as the capacity of a physical system to do work while power as the rate at which work is done, expressed as the amount of work per unit time and commonly measured in units such as the watt and horsepower. Power  Energy  Time. The unit of measurement for energy is joule while for power, it is joule  time or watt.

In two or three sentences, describe the meaning of standby (also called vampire) electricity. One type of source of standby electricity is any remote-controlled device, which consumes electricity waiting for a signal from a remote control. Briefly describe two other types of standby electricity. (5 marks)

The Grinning Planet (2007) defines vampire power as the wasted standby power in home appliances. When an appliance is turned off but is plugged to an outlet, it still consumes electricity. Very common examples of these are a power adapter (no switch onoff mode) and digital clocks.

Examine and describe the differences in energy ratio (i.e., the energy input compared to the energy output) between corn-based ethanol and cellulosic ethanol. Provide citations for your discussions. (5marks)

Montenegro (2006) said that in todays world where climate change is a big issue, it is very important to shift to renewable sources of energy and at this current time, corn is a major source. Corn ethanol has been used as biofuel and the industry has surged and collapsed in recent years but researchers discovered that corn ethanol can lead to an even more promising source of biodegradable energy cellulosic ethanol which has very little production rate today (University of Tennessee). According to Mack (2009), the U.S. Department of Energy says cellulosic ethanol provides 54 percent more energy than corn-based ethanol in comparison to the amount of energy required for production. Additionally, cellulosic ethanol is considerably cleaner than corn ethanol. Mack (2009) said that corn ethanol emits 10-20 less carbon than gasoline while cellulosic ethanol is essentially carbon-free. According to the University of Tennessee, energy ratio for corn ethanol is 1.6 while cellulosic ethanol energy ratio ranges from 5 to 10, depending upon source of biomass.

Describe the environmental effects of ocean oil spills. What is the state of the art in cleaning up spills in the ocean and on a beach

The industrialization processes and development of human knowledge has most significantly changed the prospects of man for both better and worse. At one hand, humans have achieved massive development, economic productivity, rapid technological increases and of course, the linkages of the entire world through vast transportation networks.

However, with the massive development in the global sphere undertaken by man, has no doubt, come at a very heavy price of the environment. Man, having consumed most of the natural resources available in the world, has at the same time, left by products in the form of pollution in his pursuit towards higher industrial development.

The recent attention given to the global environment and the stress on decreasing mans carbon footprint has been provoked by the massive amounts of pollution that man has created in this world. This very pollution has led to massive changes in the earths eco systems.

This paper seeks to explain the cause of oil disasters that occur across oceans and water channels. Starting out with a description of oil spills, the paper hopes to develop cause relationships as to why oil leaks into the ocean. Both factors of natural causes and oil spills will be examined and their effects on the environment will be discussed in detail. The conclusion of the paper will signify the difficult task of cleaning operations that follow an oil spill, introducing the latest technology and procedures developed. To highlight the important of such spillages, the paper will also discuss recommendations, precautions and safety procedures that cans be followed to minimize the effects of oil spills, if not curtail them entirely.

Oil spills
Oil pollution is one such form of the pollution left by mankind on the face of this planet. Since transportation is a key fundamental in the development of economics, industries and anything else that generates income for the masses, oil becomes the fundamental resource required to power industries. The need for energy, power and working machinery require oil as a necessary resource. Thus, oil is often termed as liquid gold.

The key lies in the distribution of oil and its transportation. Since oil is required across the globe, its transportation follows a global pattern as well. Shipped across various countries around the world, oil is one of the most heavily transported natural resource in the world. At the same time, it is one of the root causes of the massive pollution outbreak in the 21st century.

Because of the uneven distribution of oil across various continents, it becomes pertinent to connect these countries to those in need of oil through the ocean. Thus, the use of oil vessels and transportation channels developed through the ocean are used.  Thus, with any transportation system, an expectation in accidents is not abnormal and is a likely occurrence. Thus, oil spills exists and occur across the globe as history has shown.

The use and production of oil has jumped from 500 million tons in the 1950s to 2.5 billion tons in the late 1990s.  This massive growth in the oil industry has led to a direct increase in transportation systems and the volume of oil shipped across sea.  With oil accounting for more than half of the total volume of sea cargo, it is easy to understand why oil spills have gained massive media recognition. The number of oil spills has no doubt increased, but that is because the volume of transport, number of transporters and the sizes they come in have drastically increased with the booming industry.
History of oil spills

Over the years, various oil spills have been registered as some of the most devastating moments in the Earth environmental history. Though contradiction over the claims exist, it is generally held that oil spills in the ocean causes by transportation vessels are the main causes of pollutants of oil spills. Not only are they far worse than other causes, but hold a greater percentage of incidents ever caused.
Though oil spills through the use of tankers and transportation vessels are responsible for 70 of the latest deadly environmental attacks in recent years, it is important to understand that they are not the only source of environmental damage done by oil spills. According to sources, 363 gallons of oil per year are doused into the drains through general use. This oil, used in various cities and other activities is eventually washed up into the oceans and seas. Similarly, 137 million gallons of oil are left into the ocean due to routine maintenance operations in which ships, and other such factors release oil into seaways during their normal course of business and operations.  92 million gallons are evaporated in the air in the form of air pollutions, where as it is oil that is causing the damage in itself. Eventually this is washed up into the oceans as settlements of particles are washed into the sea through rain. Beyond that, even offshore drilling causes an effect of 15 million gallons per year that is washed into the ocean.

Even so, it is important to consider some of the most devastating effects of oil tankers leaking oil into the ocean. One of the most pertinent to mention is that of Amoco Cadiz. This one tanker alone caused a spill of over 68 million gallons into the sea. Due to bad weather, the tanker split and leaked oil across the Coast of Brittany, France in 1978.

Another incident involved Iraq destroying tankers, oil terminals and other such equipment during their war against Kuwait in 1991. This was the largest oil spill in the history of the world with more than 0.9 billion gallons of oil leaking into the ocean

In 1979, the Burmah Agate collided with another ship in the Gulf of Mexico causing a massive fire to implode due to an oil spill. The fire raged for over 2 months, and approximately 3 million gallons of oil had been showered upon the environment been in form of sea pollution and air pollution. To keep the fire burning, it is said that approximately 7.8 million tons of oil had been used resulting in the total amount of pollution caused to spiral higher than the basic numeric measurements.

The largest spill in the United States was that of the Exxon Vladez, part of the Exxon Shipping Company. Having transgressed the normal shipping lane due to ice patches along the arctic, the tanker unleashed 10.8 million gallons into the sea after a collision with uneven surface of the sea. The effects were so devastation that it is said that 1100 miles of the Alaskan Coastline were effected, making it the largest spill in the history of the United States.

Another important incident, often cited as the second most disastrous spill in world History, was that of Ixtoc-I. This was an exploratory well near Mexico which blew up in 1979. The disaster occurred in June, and to contain the well lasted well into March, 1980. An estimated 140 million gallons of oil was lost to sea and devastated the entire Bay of Campeche.

Types of Oil
Oil properties are important to understand because they are the determinants on the amount of pollution they will disperse in the environment. Because of the varying nature of oil compounds and their compositions, it is important to consider the properties which make oil what it is and then try to understand how it will affect the environment.

First of all, the types of oil have to be examined before the characteristics can be examined. There are two basic types of oil which can be divided into categories of light and heavy. This has been based on research by scientists and the broadly accepted way of categorization by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Lighter oils are generally categorized as diesel oil or gas. They have properties of evaporating far more quickly but are extremely flammable and are also highly toxic. Generally, in the event of oil spills which consist of these categories of oil, the damages are done when fumes are inhaled, or living things come into contact with this oil. Also, being highly flammable, there is a high probability of a threat of massive fires if they ignite.

Heavier oils on the other hand consist of fuel drivers for engines, especially transportation vessels and heavy duty machinery. Though these oils are not that toxic as are light oils, they have a tendency to remain in the atmosphere and environment for a much longer time. Unlike lighter oils, they affect plants and animals by smothering them. They have a property of hardening as they reach the shore or come into contact with dry environment. Because of this, not only are their effects long lasting but also difficult to clean.

Characteristics of Oil in relation to spill properties
Before building upon the case of effects on the environment, it is pertinent to understand how oil spills occur and what determines their level of hazard to the environment. Since oils are of different categories, they spill differently as well. Generally though, oil spills in the form of a spread. This spread occurs when oil spreads horizontally across the ocean forming a thick slick over the ocean surface. How far this slick spreads and its repercussions on the environment are determined by three specific factors

Surface tension- this property describes the tension between the surface of the water and the oil molecules. Based on this, the higher the surface tension between the oil and ocean surface, the greater the chance that the oil spill will remain in one place. This can be changed due to the climatic differences in the global atmosphere. For instance, since warmer areas decrease the surface tension, oil spills will spread far more into the ocean in warmer water areas of the world.

Viscosity- this is the resistance properties of a liquid to that of flow. To explain these phenomena, we must observe the properties of honey. Honey is one liquid which is very viscous in nature. Thus, it stays in one place, as would highly viscous oil do, in the event of an oil spill.

Specific gravity- this is the comparison between the density of water and that of the substance (oil in this case). Heavier oils tend to sink and create balls of tar towards the bottom of the ocean. Lighter oils tend to evaporate into the atmosphere.

Effects on the environment
The effects of oil based substances on the environment are quite disastrous. Not only do oil spills affect marine life and ocean stability, but at the same time hurt the wild life and environment on the shore. This part of the paper examines some of the habitats and ecosystems destroyed or devastated by oil spills.

Aquatic Habitats
When considering the effects on the aquatic wildlife, it is important to consider two factors where they reside and what their place in the food chain is. Depending on which area in the ocean they reside, whether they are deep water animals, or they live near the shore, will determine the extent of damage to their habitat. If they are highly placed in the food chain, the ecosystem might not be that disruptive but the lower they are, the more animals will be affected by the oil spill.

The first aspect to consider is that of coral reefs. These reefs are near to the shoreline and are a habitat for various breeding animals such as shrimps, fish and provide recreational activities for human beings. In the course of an oil spill, these reefs can either be destroyed completely due to the poisonous nature of the oil spill, or become smothered by the oil itself, leading to eventual destruction. When these coral reefs are destroyed, the animals that would breed in that area are left with no habitat to reproduce, affecting the entire ecosystem.

Second, when regarding the direct shoreline, there are many animals that live, breed and habitat on the shoreline itself. If the shoreline becomes polluted, their habitat is lost and they eventually die due to lack of food and shelter. However, the risk is lesser in this regard since very few animals live in this form of habitat for long periods of time. The only problem is that when it comes to beaches or shorelines, tidal wave activity is very low. Thus, repair work has to begin immediately, or the oil will be absorbed by the sand leading to long term continuous damage. Tidal flats, consisting of vegetation and animal life together, are areas near low tide zones. If the water seeps into the muddy patches at the bottom of such areas, they destroy the ecosystem with time as well.

Mangrove forests are located near the sea shore of various tropical countries. In the event of an oil spill near this area, the mangrove forests, which are extremely important breeding grounds for various animals, and home to plant diversity and animal life as well, will eventually fade away. The importance of mangroves to the world climate is also well known thus their existence is fundamental to human life itself. In the event of an oil spill, the long roots of the mangrove trees, which are responsible, not only for the trees growth put also to keep it in place, are damaged and covered with oil. In such cases, the tree eventually dies and replacement becomes very difficult because to grow back a mangrove tree takes a lot of time, often cited as decades.

Marine animals that are affected include the Sea Otters. These animals end up being covered in oil which reduces the air flow from the coats of their fur or body. The air bubbles that these animals produce are a natural way of protecting themselves from cold environments and helping them stay afloat. With time, they eventually die.

Whales are at risk of oil spill effects as well. It is understandable that whatever the whale takes in is almost always released through the blow hole. Given in a scenario, the whale, while taking in water to feed, consumes oil, their blow holes will eventually be ridden with oil particles, blocking the main blow hole. Since this is their primary method of breathing as well, they eventually suffer death in the long run. Even if the blow hole is not covered, there are chances that consuming the oil along with the fish will lead to poisoning of the whale.

Even when we consider flora and fauna, we can see clearly that the entire process of photosynthesis can be destroyed if oil covers the top layers of plants. With time, the amount of flora and fauna will decrease and die out. This leads to a direct destruction of the food chain because animals that feed on the basics of the ocean cannot survive to feed the ones higher in the food chain.

Whether it is through ingestion, contact, or interaction with the oil, sea animals and plant life are at high risks. There is a resounding amount of evidence proving that oil spills cause many of the animals, especially invertebrates choke. Beyond this fact, it also alters their development, growth and metabolic rates which in turn end up affecting the entire eco system present in the ocean. Even when it comes to human beings, if these animals are ingested by them, they are at risk of severe damage to their own humanly body systems, especially the lungs, kidneys and liver.

Birds and Mammals
The following are some of the ways that birds and mammals can be affected by oil spills
Direct Contact
Toxicities
Destruction of habitats

Reproductive destruction
When birds and animals come into contact with oil, their feathers are affected by the oil directly. They are not only matted down but are severely damaged as well. This in eventuality leads to birds and mammals losing their insulating abilities that their fur coats provided them. They then freeze in colder waters or environments. Most birds become incapable of flying and thus they lose their competitive edge in the environment, more susceptible to be prey.

The toxic nature of oil itself is a source of concern. Inhaling vapors and ingesting oil can lead to serious consequences not only for birds and mammals but also for human beings. Inhaling vapors causes many animals to directly hurt their central nervous system. Ingestion causes severe damage to their reproductive abilities, growth and development and their internal organs which are severely damaged. These animals eventually die.

Another important consequence in event of an oil spill is that of the effects on the natural habitat and the surrounding ecosystem. The food chain is directly affected if some animals become infected with the oil through ingestion. Their predators too will eventually become infected as they consume the tainted animals. If food habitats are destroyed, many animals will eventually die, affecting the entire food chain itself.

Even future generations of animals are affected as shell development and hatching eggs are severely damaged by oil spills. Eggs are sealed by the oil and the smothering causes the exchange of gas between the egg and the environment to be cut off. This in turn, leaves the eggs to die and future breeding to diminish.

Cleaning oil spills
Once the damage has been done, there is no way to entirely remove the effects of an oil spill. Only time and determination can minimize the effects to a certain degree. But the damage to the ecosystem and the environment itself will have been done either way. There are two ways oil spills are cleared up Natural ways and human technological use. This part of the paper discusses both and hopes to shed light on new technologies being used by human beings to control the detrimental effects of oil spills.

Natural methods
It is widely accepted that oil spills through tankers are not the main source of oil contamination in the ocean. In fact, the majority of oil contamination that takes place in the oceans is due to routine engine use. The oil that seeps into the rivers and oceans through our daily use of oil related machinery. It is said that 363 million gallons of used engine oil from industries and cities end up contaminating water supplies in the oceans and rivers, per year. But even so, the natural processes do not let us feel the effects that much, as those that are visible by the oil spills made by vessels.

Some of the methods used by Mother Nature are
Weathering
Evaporation
Oxidation
Biodegradation

The natural process of weathering breaks down the oil with time. These are considered as a series of natural and biological processes that occur in the ecosystem of the earth. Through this, the oil is broken down and dispersed across the ocean. Since the chemical processes make the oil heavier than water, the oil often sinks. Also, tidal waves disperse the oil as well.

Lighter oils are subject to evaporation. Almost immediately after an oil spill, the earths environment causes the lighter particles of oil to evaporate leaving only the heavier particles which are broken down further through chemical processes and then sink to the bottom of the sea bed.

Often, due to oxidation, the oil is compounded through chemical processes making it more water soluble.  However, this process affects the oil spills towards the edges of the slick.

Bio-degeneration occurs in warmer climates of the world. Bacteria and microorganisms feed on the oil hydrocarbons, breaking it down and reducing the quantity of the spill. However, in such scenarios a large number of microorganisms are needed and thus human influences are often used to speed up the process. With the addition of nitrogen and phosphorous, microorganism reproductive rates are increased, directly affecting the number of microorganisms in the area. The more the better it is for the reduction of oil spills.

Manmade cleaning processes
Oil spills and their nature of cleaning varies based on the climate, nature of disaster, type of oil in use and the situation unfolding at the time. However, even so, various international organizations such as the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have devised certain set factors and rules towards cleaning up oil spills. They include a general response system which is followed in almost every oil spill crisis.

Various ways are employed by disaster recovery procedures, some of which are as follows

Mechanical containment
Using various equipments such as booms, skimmers and sorbent materials, oil is properly composed and captured before it leaks and affects more surrounding environment.

ChemicalBiological adjustments
Dispersing agents and other chemicals are employed to contain oil dispersants into other regions. Generally, using chemicals to either help with the evaporation process or solubility of the oil are used.

Physical methodology
Using physical procedures such as hand washing, pressure hoses and bulldozing can help speed up the natural healing process of the environment. Since naturally occurring cleansing processes take years, man uses machinery and physical intervention to speed up the process.

Keeping animals at bay
Using scare tactics, environmentalists use methods to ensure that animals and wild life stay away from the contaminated area. This is more of prevention than cleaning but ensures that the danger of the oil spill is contained. Using scare crows which include floating dummies and sound enhances to scare away wild life, especially birds, environmentalist and the cleaning crew can ensure that the damage does not extend beyond a certain degree.

The generally accepted practice includes the use of the following

Booms
Skimmers
Chemical Dispersants
In-Situ burning

Booms are basically methods of containment after an oil spill has incurred. To prevent the oil, which is insoluble in water and rises above it, from reaching shorelines, booms are used to channel the oil in a specific direction, or contain it in a particular area.  Booms are often defined as flotation devises which help contain the disaster of the oil spill.  Though a valuable resource in containing oil spills, booms have an inherent disadvantage that they become less effective as the tidal flow increases. Thus the higher the waves, the less effective booms will become.

Skimmers are devices that work alongside booms. Once booms have contained the oil spills, skimmers are used to recover the oil that has been spilt. Weir skimmers are used to create small artificial dams to drop oil into containment storage. This is later pumped out using hoses or other equipment. However, the problem with this technique is that it is not entirely sustainable for long periods. This is principally because with time, the skimmers become clogged due to both the oil and the debris present in the ocean. Other forms of skimmers include attracting skimmers which use different materials to pick up the oil from the ocean surface. The particular advantage of this technique is that it can work around the debris present in the environment. Finally, suction skinners are used as vacuum cleaners to clean the ocean. These are the best way to clean oil collected through a boom. However, they too run the risk of clogging.

Often, when the oil spills are of the nature requiring authorities to break them down into smaller particles, dispersants are used. These are materials with chemical properties that break down petroleum or other oil based products into basic compounds that are easier to clean, or are less harmful to the environment.  By providing nature with the initial screening, wave flows and sea energies disperse the oil particles into streams and different areas, thus providing a less harmful environment in the oceanic sphere. At the same time, it becomes less likely that such strong oil currents, with harmful slicks and heavy oil streams will reach the shoreline, providing a safe environment on the beaches as well. These are most useful in warmer climates and are generally used when the initial layer of the oil, which contains lighter compounds have evaporated. These cannot be used in fresh water due to environmental regulations but in times of need, they are.

Finally, in-situ techniques involve burning the oil when it is freshly spilled. Through this, most of the oil is used up due to the combustion properties and pollution in the ocean is decreased. However, the down side is that the pollution that does not affect the sea ends up resulting in air pollution, which in turn can lead to severe acid rain in the region.

Cleaning animals and beaches

When it comes to beaches, the most used methods include using vacuum pumps, high pressure hoses and construction machinery.  When cleaning beaches, it is important to consider weather and the human life that exists around it. Generally, as the oil covers the beaches, the first step is to clean the heavy materials through heavy pressure hosing. Pressurized water is used to clean rocks and shores for particles of oil. After this and in some circumstances, alongside hosing techniques, vacuum cleaning is performed. Oil particles, tiny and large are both cleaned off using heavy suction pumps which suck in the oil that cannot be dispersed or is in inaccessible areas. Finally, construction equipment is used to either bulldoze areas heavily contaminated or clean areas which cannot be approached with any of the above mentioned apparatus.

To clean animals, various centers are set up which provide cleaning services. First, the oil is washed off from their bodies using the latest techniques and equipment. The areas which are heavily treated are the eyes and the intestines because they lead to the most destructive affects in animals, if not cleaned properly.  Second, the animals are treated for body injuries such as broken bones and other such incidences. Third, they are given medicine which creates a film around their stomachs which help the animals digest and prevent more oil entering into their bodies.

Prevention
Based on the destructive nature of oil spills, many governments, and international organizations have placed rules and regulations governing the transportation of oil. The hope is to prevent such catastrophes by heavily penalizing, and creating hype about the repercussions involved.

One requirement of most international countries is that of emergency response plans. Authorities need to know if the companies operating in their waters are ecologically sound. They must know what they must do in case of a disaster to minimize the damage as far as possible. At the same time, enforcing this law ensures that companies know their environmental responsibilities and are more prepared to handle them.  These plans outline the procedures that the company involved in the transportation of oil will follow in the case of an accident. Based on these plans, they are allowed to enter international waters of different countries.

The United States has taken this a step further by implementation of a law that enforces all ships entering with oil cargoes to have a double hull. Double hulls are safer for the environment, though very expensive to build. They ensure that if the initial hull is cracked, minimum or no level of oil will disperse into the environment because the second hull will prevent it from leaving. This policy is set to take affect by 2015.  They have even set out laws that penalize oil traders 1,200 for every ton they spill into the ocean and are currently in the process of developing spill funds which collect money from oil traders throughout the year. The hope of the project is to meet cleaning costs in the eventuality of an accident that occurs.

The costs of oil spills on the environment are hazardous. Now, monetarily speaking, the effects are hazardous too. The issue cannot be the stopping of oil transportation because it is the blood of the economies working around the globe. However, now the emphasis has been on prevention to insure oil spills do not occur, and if they do, they cause the least amount of damage.  Laws such as the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 have been enacted to ensure that companies are more conscious of their environment and that oil spills do not occur. The threats are obvious, as discussed by the paper. Though those are the detailed effects, it is clear that oil spills can be sparked into a fire very easily and can further cause damage to the air. Sinking towards the bottom of the ocean can damage ecosystems. Even rain formed after an oil spill can be acidic in nature and can further destroy the environment. Thus, currently firms and governments are employing their resources under the strategy of prevention is better than cure, because there is no set cure for oil spills. Damage to the environment will always exist in an oil spill no matter how latest the use of technology, resources and man power may be.

Book review cover sheet

Sustainability is the sustain ability to innovate and progress.
Energy is the fuel of all human activities.
Energy is pre-condition and a catalyst of development.
Cities and energy are related in the rise and fall of the civilization.
Urban and energy systems are capital intensive and have long lives.

Key practical recommendations

For the sustainability of the environment, all of us must learn how to save energy, manage the use of air, water, and soil, to sustain mobility, especially prevent and reduce pollution and reduce the charge to global environment.
 
For socio-economic sustainability, the leaders today and leaders in the future must support and improve the growth and employment in the cities, create more business for the citizens to have source of income, provide more housing for the citizens, and especially promote social justice and equity.

To achieve cultural and political sustainability, there must be democracy in the cities, the citizens must participate in the situations in the cities, and the leaders must provide education to all the citizens.

Citizens and people must be aware in the situations that are happening in the environment, economic, and culture, learn to reuse, recycle and repair to reduce the large amount of garbage.
 
Leader nowadays and leaders in the future must improve the infrastructures in the cities, help and allow the citizens to participating in sustaining the environment, economic, and culture

Sustainable Development, Energy and the City A Civilisation of Concepts and Action
Sustainable Development, Energy and the City A Civilisation of Concepts and Action is one of the many books that were written by Voula Mega, an Engineer and with a PhD degree in Planning and it was published in New York in 2005.

Voula Mega aims to gives insight to the readers, the unspecialized decision-makers, interest citizens, and future leaders about the function of energy, cities, economics, societies and culture. The author wants the readers to understand that the cost of inaction and reliance on technologies and the unsustainable cultural patterns will be intolerable and the ways to sustain the energy and the other factors that are needed to prevent the changes that are happening in the environment. The book focuses on the concepts and action that is related to the cities and energy at the beginning of the sustainability of the civilization.

The concept sustainable development evolved from the ecological concepts to achieve a strong economy, equality in the society and better environment in the future, and encourage the citizens to participate in the sustainable development.

Mega (2005) states that sustainability provides some ways to protect the environment, the soil, water, and air, the sustainability of waste management, energy, the sources of renewable energy, and how to prevent the worsening effects of climate change and global warming is what it value most about the environment. Sustainability is an inventive and a process that seek balance. Sustainability can widens the scope of socio-economics, the cultural criteria and the demands in new ethics, models and patterns. It gives light on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the development. Sustainability symbolizes the intervention for new opportunities to achieve a better world. It asks for innovation, investment in capital, labor, skills and most of all change. It also offers the cities the opportunities to be democratic spaces involving the macro-regulations of the world and the communities micro-regulation.

Renewable sources of energy include hydropower, solar, wind, biomass and biofuels, geothermal and tidal energy which acts as fundamental vectors to achieve the sustainable energy in the future.

The environment, the cities, the citizens, society, and the health, safety, and harmony in the city are the things that the author wants the people to protect. Cities are the places where people and resources come together, it is the place where future laboratories are built and where cultural patterns are shaped. It is the place where energy technology that improves the resources is developed and adopted. Cities create an environment where economic prosperity, social cohesion and citizenship blossoms. The citizens are the one who will introduce the civilization to sustainability. Harmony will bring back the quality of life in the cities. Health is not only the absence of disease but it also refers to the completeness of physical, social, and mental well-being of a person. Public safety is a challenge for the government safety is not reachable if there are many crimes that are happening in the cities. Crime is one of the factors that affect the living of people it is the cause of unemployment in some cities. The government must give attention to the safety of the citizens to stop the increasing rate of crimes.

Voula Mega uses survey, interviews, case studies, and scientific evidences in her book for the readers to be convinced in what she was telling. Mega (2005, p.105) cited the survey that was conducted near the French nuclear sites it gets the perception of the public in insisting the security of nuclear sites. The survey shows that 65-70 people living near the nuclear sites that the authorities must implement a defensive position. Mega (2005, p.106) cited the interview was conducted at Sweden by Demoskop in December 2000, 83 of the respondents considered that it is important to take into consideration the zero contribution to global warming in deciding about the nuclear power in the future.  Mega (2005, p. 116) cited the case study that was conducted by Trustnet, and it is done to examine the future energy options and the guideline for coping with the liberalization of market, phasing-out nuclear energy. Thirteen out of thirty-three stakeholders agreed in the extension of nuclear power, and six suggested that nuclear power must be abandoned. There is also scientific evidence which reported that EU have reached twice of its targeted emission reduction of 336 million tones, they have reached 578-696 million tones of carbon dioxide.

Voula Mega support human, their safety and health and all of nature but it doesnt mention any support for the animals. Human are the one who uses the infrastructure and the services offered in the cities. Human contribute in the creation of momentum for development. And also, European employers, they are alarmed in the investment and in the increasing attractiveness of the economy in the cities they are also directly open to trade and markets.

Scientific principles and humanistic principles were used in the book. Mega (2005, p. 40) cited The Precautionary Principle this principle is focused on the risks and the regulations that are based on scientific evaluation. It aims to build a general basis in assessing, managing and communicating, risks which are not yet determined by science. Mega (2005, p.226) cited Sustainability Principles, to develop is not only a capital city but it also promotes the harmonious development in the city and its surroundings. Mega (2005, p. 172) cited the Over-arching Principles, it is the belief that social, economic, and environmental policy are balanced. Mega (2005, p. 47) cited that the Driving Principle, states that nothing is impossible and everybody must participate. This is the only humanistic principle that was used in the book.

Technological development is important for thermonuclear fusion, it is necessary in the renewable sources of energy like fuel, cells photovoltaic, large-scale wind farms and biofuels. Technological development is important in increasing the emergence of technology for the new energy. Technology can help in the reduction of the use of energy, services like heating, lighting and mobility. It also reduces the amount of energy that is use in generating the use of systems and a unit of energy. It also decreases the pollutants that are harmful in the environment.

Sustainability of the economy is made-up of the income of the cities, the expense that is use in the development of the environment, and pollution damage like air, water and land pollution. Growth in the economy will be the cause of reducing unemployment in the cities. Economic instrument is a substitute of markets that are expensive and disorganize. Its advantage of economic instrument is that it can be applied in fiscal infrastructure of a city. The success of this depends on meta-policy and institutional context.

Social justice is primary prerequisite in the creation of wealth sustainability. It is the main philosophy of social architecture of the city. It is essential for cities that are reaching sustainability the prevention and stopping the social exclusion. The city with harmony, citizenship that cannot be alleged without equity can be called a social city. New structures that are created will be a helpful solution on the joined-up problems and it will improve action and it will promote social justice.

The main arguments in the book are about the environmental, socio-economic, and cultural and political sustainability. In environmental sustainability it tells us to save energy, learn to manage the quality of our resources, sustain mobility, prevent and reduce pollution. In socio-economic sustainability it tells us to increase the number of employment, build more houses for the citizens, have social justice and equality, and use the space and time efficiently. And in cultural sustainability it tells us to have democracy, participate more in sustaining the culture and traditions, and be creative.

The book wants us to innovate ourselves in sustaining our environment, economy and culture. We must be aware what is happening in our environment, what are the harmful effects of climate change and global warming in the people and in the environment. We must have a solution on how to prevent the destruction of our environment, we must also learn how to recycle, reuse for us to help to reduce the increasing volume of our garbage.

Sustainability cannot be achieve if the citizens are the only who are making their move, the government must also make their move to achieving sustainability. The government must improve the landscape, urban structure, and land infrastructure. There must be increase in jobs, good housing, and continuous improving in the cities. We must do all of this of achieve the sustainability that we our dreaming of.

To illustrate the appropriate approaches the author uses proven studies, exemplary cases, the data that came from UN, the pictures of the representation of some cities in the world, cases that was done by the UNESCO, projects that was conducted by the Business Council for Sustainable Development.

Voula Mega analyzed the information that she used in the book by the means of her own understanding about the situations that are happening in our environment and also with the help of facts, illustrations, figure and the principles, actual surveys, case study, and the information she gather from the selected organization that are related in her book. By the use of these she comes up with the ideas that she presented in her book.

The information that is available in the book can be applied in other situations that are happening in our environment. The tips and her simple solution for the changes that are happening in the environment can be use by the readers, interest citizens, and future leaders to contribute in the prevention of the changes in the environment.

Voula Mega wants the readers of the book to learn how to contribute on the sustainability in environment, economics, culture and politics, in just simple ways. People must learn to save energy, manage the use of air, soil, and water to prevent pollutions and to be aware. For the future leaders, they must improve the employment, business, housing and social justice on the city. There must also be democracy in every city, participation of the citizens in sustaining the environment, economics, culture, and politics. Aside from all of these, every people must help in the continuous improvement, be open on the every situation, be flexible, proactive, inventive, intelligent, and competitive.
1. Identification of Research Topic
Concern over food safety is increasing in all countries worldwide. Current trends in many countries are directed towards ensuring that there is regulation of food safety.  Scientists are identifying new foodborne pathogens and their potential for adverse consequences on human health and life. The demand for safer food is also growing among consumers as they become more informed on the link between diet and health, more affluent and as they live longer (Burlingame Pineiro 2007). The proportion of food that is acquired from food services such as restaurants, and cafes is also rapidly increasing even in the developing countries (Trienekens  Zuurbier 2008). The control consumers had over food handling and its preparation is therefore reducing (Trienekens  Zuurbier 2008). International trade in processed as well as unprocessed food products is also a very large source of food supply in many countries owing to reduced technical and trade barriers (Jongwanich, 2009). This in itself introduces new sources of food risks. Combination of these trends has resulted in increased public as well as private demand for greater food safety. The governments are also making efforts to safe guard the supply of food. Governments in the developed and developing countries are taking various approaches to food safety management. The effects and success of food safety management also varies across different countries (developed and developing). This paper seeks to compare food safety management between developed countries and developing countries in different parts of the world. This research seeks to achieve this by comparing the policies and regulations that have been put in place in various countries to manage food safety, the available systems, whether these countries have the required manpower and skills to manage food safety, food safety awareness, the role of the media in managing food safety and its awareness, the set standards of food, quality of food, consumer behaviour and producer behaviour in developed and developing countries (Jongwanich 2009).

Studying food safety management in developed and developed countries is important because of the adverse consequences of unsafe food. It is important to understand the various public and private food safety standards and how effective they are in developed and developing countries. Compliance with these standards and the effect is also worth studying as we can understand why some countries find it hard to comply with the guidelines. We can therefore identify ways of making compliance with food safety standards effective in all countries whether developed or developing without negatively affecting them such as reducing their levels of food exportation.

2. Description of Search Strategy
I adopted one major search strategy to obtain the relevant information for the research topic. That is literature from Griffin University Library and online databases.

This library has abundant information resources and I chose to focus on journals. I used the journals as I wanted to understand the outcomes of studies conducted by various researchers on topics related to food safety management in various countries in different parts of the world. In searching the articles, I typed key words such as food safety management in developed and developing countries to access the relevant journals. On typing these words, several articles were displayed for me to choose.  I only chose those journals which are relevant to my area of research. To determine the most relevant articles, I read the title, if it sounded relevant I read through the abstract to determine the methodology, results and conclusion. If the information in the abstract was relevant, I read through the entire article.  I critically reviewed and analysed the available articles to determine the ones whose content was most relevant in terms of details, richness and reliability. I also used the considered the methodology as a way of determining quality sources.  I downloaded electronic version of articles from the library database.

3. Critical Literature Analysis
Al-Kandari, D.,  Jukes, D. J. 2009. A situation analysis of the food control systems in Arab Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Food Control, 20 11121118.

This article discusses food safety management in Arab Gulf Cooperation Council countries by analyzing the food control systems in these countries. The paper explores food control systems in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries to establish how effective these systems are. According to the authors, increased concern over the safety of food has compelled countries to adopt international guidance on the basic elements for national food control systems. Countries that are members of the Gulf Cooperation Council have used this guidance to carry out initial evaluation of the status of control systems of food in their respective countries. While these countries use different approaches to achieve this goal in terms of food control management, cooperation between them has resulted to increased harmonization of food control practices as well as legislation. The findings reveal that progress is being made as far as food safety management is concerned. However, there is evidence of weakness that may need additional efforts to be put in for success to be achieved. The researchers explain the challenges that face these countries in their attempts to manage food safety.

This paper is important for my research project as it comprehensively discusses food safety management and control systems in GCC countries as well as challenges that face these attempts. It will form a basis for my study as it discusses food safety management in developing countries. By reading this journal I will be able to identify the challenges that face developing countries in their attempts to ensure management of food safety hence determine why food safety management policies have not been effective in developing countries and determine how this can be addressed.

Burlingame, B.,  Pineiro, M. 2007. The Essential Balance Risks and Benefits in Food Safety and Quality. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 20 (3-4) 139-146.

This paper is concerned with analysis of food composition which includes evaluation of the beneficial as well as harmful food components in human beings diet. According to the authors, the notion of food safety initially excluded nutrition elements such as nutrients in supplement and fortificants form, and known risk factors for various chronic diseases. The risk safety activities currently undertaken by the WHO and FAO consider issues to do with genetically modified foods, nutritional supplements, functional foods and high levels of nutrient additives. According to this article, food safety currently refers to the various chemical and microbial contents in food. The paper discusses the from farm to table approach taken by FAO in ensuring food safety. This paper explains what food composition is, why it should be monitored and how issues of food quality as well as safety can be resolved internationally. This article contributes to my research project by explaining a holistic food chain approach that recognizes that everyone involved in food production is responsible for supplying safe food that is nutritious.

Ropkins, K.,  Beck, A. J. 2000. Evaluation of Worldwide Approaches to the use of HACCP to Control Food Safety. Trends in Food Science  Technology, 11 1021

This article discusses how Hazard Analysis by Critical Control Point (HACCP) can be used as a management tool to ensure food safety. According to this paper, this is one of the tools that have been identified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) as well as the United States Food and Agriculture Organisation amongst several other bodies and is recommended for application in commercial food production. As such, many countries now incorporate the principles of HACCP in their respective national food safety legislation. The authors argue that there is possibility of this tool being used as the future standardisation component for international food quality as well as assurance practices. This paper discusses the key principles of HACCP and assesses how this tool has been implemented in various regions including the United Kingdom, Australia, North America, and New Zealand as well as in developing countries.

This article discusses the success of HACCP in developed and the still developed countries. According to the findings, adoption of HCCP in developed countries varies.  While it is fast in the United States, New Zealand and Australia, its adoption in the European Union member states has been a bit slow and challenging because of the various legal structures for food safety surveillance, assurance and legislation that are unique to each country. A part from this observation, HACCP has been more successful in the developed countries as compared to the developing countries. According to the article, the popularity of HACCP is increasing in developing countries in spite of the initial challenges such as cultural and language problems, lack of proper training and education, insufficient information on hazards and lack of HACCP documentation in native languages.

This article is important for my research project as it explains one of the internationally recognised tools for managing food safety. The article compares and discusses the success in implementation of this tool in developed and developed countries. From the discussion of this paper, we are made to understand that HACCP has been more successful in developed countries as opposed to the developing countries because of the many limitations in developing countries that are not present or have been addressed in the developed countries. The article will form a basis for my research as it gives information on and compares food safety management policies in developed and developing countries. By reading this article, we are able to understand why food safety management policies and tools are more successful in developed countries as compared to the developing countries.

Hillers, V. N. 1997. Food Safety and Quality Topics in National Plans of Action for Nutrition. Food Control, 8 (1) 5-11.

This journal reviews portions of the National Plans of Action for Nutrition as well as other International Conference Nutrition documents that focus on protecting consumers by improving food quality and safety. These documents emphasize that each and every individual has right to access food that is nutritionally adequate and safe. According to this author, preparing a National Plan for Action for Nutrition has provided nations with an opportunity to assess their respective food control systems to determine their effectiveness and offer improvements. The article covers how these documents improve national food control systems in various parts of the world. The author also reviews the challenges faced in maintaining food safety quality. Challenges that are associated with importation and exportation of foods, food transportation, street foods, zoonotic pathogens and chemical agents in foods and the standards that have been established to control related risks are comprehensively covered.

The paper also mentions adoption of HACCP by some countries to identify and manage food hazards. From this article, we are able to learn the educational strategies that have been put forward by nations through National Plans of Action to improve food safety ands quality. It helps us understand how various nations address the problems and challenges that are associated with food safety and security.

This article will not be used as a basis for the research but it contains supplement information for the study. Information from this article will help me understand efforts different countries are making to ensure food safety. The differences between the strategies and policies undertaken in developed countries and developing countries will be studied.  

Jeng, J. H.,  Fang, T. J. 2003. Food Safety Control System in TaiwanThe Example of Food Service Sector. Food Control, 14 317-322.

In this article, the authors discuss the development and implementation of food safety and security systems for Taiwans food service sector. According to the authors, this sets a very good example for regulation of food safety system on country-level particularly for factories that export agricultural products. In this article, it is clear that Taiwan keeps a record of food-borne disease incidence and outbreaks. The specific causes have also been identified in the various outbreaks. To reduce the out break of these diseases, the Taiwan government through the Health Department introduced the Hazard Analysis by Critical Control Point (HACCP) system in the food service sector and in factories that make box meals. This article comprehensively discusses development and implementation of HACCP and food good hygienic practices as food safety and security systems in Taiwan.

In Taiwan, the department of health is responsible the policies, standards, regulations and procedures that food industries have to comply with to ensure that food safety is maintained. According to the article, HACCP as well as good hygiene practice has gained ground in Taiwans food industry. The countrys food safety and security systems are compatible with internationally adopted CODEX alimentus and will help maintain food safety domestically as well internationally through trade. The author concludes that Taiwans food safety and security systems have a strong foundation and will be effective and efficient in ensuring food safety.

This article contributes to my research project by helping us understand how food safety and security systems have been effectively implemented in some developing countries providing insight into what mechanisms and coordination should be put in place to achieve success in developing countries.

Jongwanich, J. 2009. The Impact of Food Safety Standards on Processed Food Exports from Developing Countries. Food Policy, 34 447-457.

The author discusses how food safety standards have impacted processed food exports in developing countries. According to the author, imposing food safety standards on developing countries by the developed ones could hinder the developing countries from exporting processed foods. The paper uses the Sanitary and Phytosanitary standard in his argument where he explains that this standard is practically less transparent as compared to quotas or tariffs. According to the author, developed countries have many opportunities to twist the standards stronger than is necessary so as to attain optimal level social protection and to adjust the associated testing as well as certification procedures to make their imports that rival those from developing countries more competitive. This paper also identifies limited resources, institutions and manpower as constraints as factors that constrain developing countries from achieving the food safety standards. This article helps us understand the factors that can help developing countries achieve the required food safety standards imposed by the rich countries to prevent the negative effects of not meeting these standards. It is important for my research as it identifies the sorts of factors I will measure to compare food safety management in developed countries and developing countries.

Otsuki, T., Wilson, J. S.,  Sewadeh, M. 2001.  Saving Two in a Billion Quantifying the Trade Effect of European Food Safety Standards on African Exports. Food Policy 26 495514

This paper explores the impact of a newly harmonised aflatoxin standard set by the European Union on processed food products from Africa. The authors compare this standard with international standards in terms of the impacts of changes in various levels of protection based on this standard in contrast with those suggested internationally. This article is important for this research as it basically discusses the impact of food safety standards imposed by industrialised countries on the poor and developing countries. The findings show that implementation of the proposed aflatoxin standard in the European Union will have adverse effects on African exports of dried fruits, nuts and cereals to Europe. Though this standard seeks to reduce health risks in Europe by about 1.4 deaths after every billion years, it will reduce African exports by 64 percent ( US 670 million). This is a very small benefit for such a high cost.

The findings of this study form supplement information on some of the reasons as to why food safety management is not effective in developing countries. These findings reveal some of the ineffective and unfair strategies that rich countries use in their attempts to ensure food safety. This information will help me to determine the strategies that can be used to ensure effective food safety management in developing countries and those that should be ruled out as being ineffective.

Quested, T. E., Cook, P. E., Gorris, L. G. M.,  Cole, M. B. 2010. Trends in Technology, Trade and Consumption Likely to Impact on Microbial Food Safety. International Journal of Food Microbiology, XXX XXX- XXX.

This paper discusses the future challenges to food security. It investigates the current as well as the potential future trends as far as food-borne disease burden is concerned worldwide and relates this to technology, consumption as well as trade of some foods that have an impact on microbial food safety. The authors broadly discuss developments in food technology and considerable changes in consumer demand as well as food trade globally over the next decade. The purpose of this paper is to establish the trends that influence food-borne disease burden by studying the member countries of the European Union. By reviewing this article, we are able to particularly understand the effect of technological drivers on food-borne disease burden.

This article also provides supplement information for my research project. It gives insight into the impact of technology on food safety management. The identified technological drivers will be studied in developing countries and developed countries to determine whether they have any effect on how food safety management compares between the two kinds of countries.

Tjaart, W. S. 2005. International Trade and Food Safety in developing Countries. Food Control 16  491496

In this paper, the author identifies food safety as one of the problems associated with internal trade in developing countries. According to the article, food safety in developing countries continues to remain the responsibility of consumers. To enhance food safety in these countries along western standards implies considerable costs and might make the price of food too high hence inaccessible by the poor. In the light of this, the author argues for new food safety tools as well as rules and regulations that are affordable for these countries. The author also argues that they should be founded on local food management customs instead of imposing the western standard that are quite expensive as far as monitoring is concerned. This article identifies the issues experienced by World Bank in its attempts to invest in food safety in developing countries and offers recommendations on how food safety can be improved in these countries.

From this article, we understand the need to simplify rules, improve infrastructure and skills, improve awareness, adapt the food safety monitoring systems so that they are compatible with the local conditions, encourage greater participation of the poor countries in organisations that set international standards and devise HACCPs for special products from poor and developing countries.

This article is crucial for my research project and forms basis for the study. The article has identified some of the factors that make food safety management in developing countries unsuccessful. These factors will be measured and further recommendations made based on the findings.

Trienekens, J.,  Zuurbier, P. 2008. Quality and Safety Standards in the Food Industry, Developments and Challenges. International Journal of Production Economics 113 107122.

This paper seeks to address the challenges that developing countries as well as emerging economies face in complying with the developed public and private food safety standards globally. The authors have also established that certification and accreditation of these standards have increased marginal costs putting pressure on the profit margins of companies in developed countries. The paper is important for the study as it discusses the effects of quality and safety standards in the food industry and the need for strategies that will revalue the effectiveness and cost of the accreditation and certification system.

This article is important for my research as it gives insight into the problems faced by the food industry in both developed and developing countries in complying with quality and safety standards that seek to ensure food safety. We are able to understand why food safety management is a global challenge as both developed as well as developing countries face many problems in their attempts to comply with the set quality and safety standards.  The challenges identified in this paper will be measured in developed as well as developing countries to determine how these countries compare in their attempts to ensure food safety in the food industry.

Unnevehr, L. J.,  Jensen, H. H. 1996.  HACCP as a Regulatory Innovation to Improve Food Safety in the Meat Industry. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 78 (3) 764-769.

This paper is based on the observation that the current system used in meat inspection in the United States is insufficient in addressing microbial food-borne pathogens which are the most vital food safety hazards in products from meat. The authors propose the use of Hazard Analysis by Critical Control Point (HACCP) system to enhance safety of food in the meat industry. According to the authors, HACCP has been embraced by the united sates Department of Agricultures Food Safety and Inspection Service as a suggestion in reducing pathogens. This paper explores the origins of Hazard Analysis by Critical Control Point (HACCP) system as an engineering concept and its economics as a regulatory tool. It explores the benefits from prevention especially when the hazard detection costs are high the precise benefits of any particular standard are not certain yet potentially high. The paper reviews the available regulatory alternatives for enhancing food safety before comprehensively discussing and evaluating HACCP.

This article is valuable to the research project as it helps us to understand the HACCP system and its application. It discusses one of the tools that are internationally recognised and recommended in enhancing food safety. I intend to measure the success of HACCP in developed and developing countries. I also intend to measure some of the available regulatory alternatives and compare the success of their implementation in developed and developing countries.

Unnevehr, L. J.,  Jensen, H. H 1999. The Economic Implications of Using HACCP as a Food Safety Regulatory Standard. Food Policy, 24 625-635.

In this article, the authors discuss the nature as well as the role of HACCP as a food safety control system. The authors focus on its role as a public food safety regulation element. They explore the idea of efficiency as far as food safety regulation is concerned and relate it food safety controls nature. The article is valuable to the research as it comprehensively discusses HACCPs economic implications with references to cost estimates and benefits and particularly for the food industry. The authors also evaluate the adoption of HACCP as a standard in international trade and in aiding trade in processed food products.

This article contributes to my research project by providing supplement information on HACCP which is one of the factors that I intend to measure in developed and developing countries as the standards described in it are internationally recognised as good practices in ensuring food safety.