BIODIVERSITY LOSS AND EXTINCTION

A positive thing about Endangered Species Act (ESA) can be termed as its contribution to the restoration of grizzly bears, brown pelicans, bald eagles and peregrine falcons from endangered species (Gordon, Robert E., James K. Lacy, and James R. Streeter 9). A positive correlation has been established between two variables namely the number of years a species is listed and improvement in the status. Peyton Knight (2006) has put an argument against ESA stating that ESA has been responsible for recovery of less than one percent of endangered species after being operation for, more than three decades.

There has been an argument in the essay that many success stories of ESA would have happened even without ESA .The supporting data proves the claim very well.

Every law has certain features that would be helping to solve an issue but it would not be offering the complete solution. ESA act could be termed as an example of ineffective implementation. Conflicting economic interest is a reason behind ineffective implementation (Miller, George 715).

The best possible alternative would be providing landowners with an economic viability, as they would be losing property rights under ESA (OConnell, Michael 142). Another possible alternative would be to have voluntary leasing agreements that would be time-sensitive.

The Mission statements provided in the web sites give a general idea of the aim of the organization. Interpretation of data can become more biased and unreliable due to this.

The sources has been unreliable to a certain extend as datas are not subjected to scientific review. There has been no field checking of data.

The viewpoint that ESA is essential to conserving biological diversity remains but with certain reservations. The act should be trying to answer why list of endangered species is getting larger year-by-year (Carroll, Ronald 6).

Green chemistry

Green chemistry can be redefined to sustainable chemistry in the aspect of reducing negative effects on environment and human health. Green chemistry can be defined as the redesign of chemical process with the aim of reducing generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry projects include use of environment friendly materials, development of new catalysts, and use of non- toxic, solvent and non volatile substitutes.

In the aspect of sustainable chemistry, the sole aim of green chemistry is to prevent pollution of environment through emission of dangerous gases. The process of green chemistry is applied in organic, physical, analytical, inorganic and biochemistry. The aim of these chemical processes is to reduce pollution and maximize on the efficiency of any chemical choice. It is a way of maintaining the environment green free from chemical pollutants (Paul, John, 2000).

The benefits associated with green chemistry technology are reduction of waste, reduced use of resources and energy, improve competition on chemical manufacturers and produce safer products.  Effective green chemistry should apply such concepts such as design of energy efficient processes. This helps to reduce the wastage of energy in processes that leads to environment pollution.

The design of chemical process should aim at maximizing raw materials used to create the end product. This concept helps to prevent wastage of resources that turns out to be environment unfriendly. There should be use of safe environment substances that are easily soluble whenever it is possible. The solvents help to reduce emission of substances that are hazards to environment. Another basic concept is to use the best method of waste disposal that does not affect the environment (Paul, John, 2000). Waste from chemical process should be treated to avoid toxicity of environment and this can be done through recycling of waste products.

Operating a cruise ship

Cruise ship business is one of the largest components making the tourism industry which is experiencing swift growth. Cruise lines are hunting for new ports and routes. According to a study conducted it revealed that each year the number and size of the ships is getting larger and most of them are carrying up to 1000 crew and 2000 passengers (Tedd, 2006). Generally cruise industry is a momentous and a great contributor to the U.S market as it provides more than 32billion annually as well as spawning more than 330, 000 job vacancies ( Copeland, 2008). Study shows that globally over 18 million passengers are carried accounting for an equivalent of  27 billion. However it also makes the environmental consequences of its activities a concern to many people.

INTRODUCTION
Cruise ship is commonly known to be a posh and relaxing excursion with lots of entertainment.  Essentially the environmental magnificence that is usually seeing while in the cruise ship and the immense ocean on which it operates keeps the whole industry alive.  Every year since the year 2001, as a result of the tremendous growth of the industry, nine ships are built to cater for the North American consumers. Despite the environmental consequences that are an issue to many, operating a cruise ship is generally luxurious. As the industry continues to expand, the environmental impacts are equally apparent. They are actually the largest polluters of nautical life as they create lots of sewages per year. 77 of all known ship pollution comes from cruise ships (Asian, 2008). The waste streams comprise of bilge water that contain grease, oil and other contaminants, ballast water and solid waste that have adverse effects.

What is cruising and basically operating a cruise ship
A cruise liner or ship is a passenger ship used for the purposes of gratification voyages where the ship amenities as well as the voyage itself are part of the experience. A cruise line is responsible for operating cruise ships. For effective services as far as ship industry is concerned, there must be an effectual management of operation which is neither easy nor cheap. The operating expenses include labor, cost of the fuel, port charges, repairs, insurance costs, technical management, registration expenses and shore management. It is commonsensical that in everything, the best value does not translate to the discounted price. These costs might seem to be high at first glance but in authenticity the overall costs of living at marine is debatable on the grounds of what you get in return and what you end up paying.

Step One- Issue to be addressed
This sustainability assessment is meant to give a more limelight to the ship industry. It is intended to give the benefits of cruising and basically the cruise industry economically, socially and ecologically. We shall analyze the draw backs they face, available alternatives as well as the impact it has on the environment.

Step two- desired outcomes
First we need to postulate what exactly a cruise passenger will be willing to do in a foreign land by describing their personal characteristics in terms of age and power. Cruise ship passengers are generally not poor disheartened individuals who are after taking a vacation to reflect on their daily lives and way forward. Most of these people are older people who are about or over the age of 45. Majority of them are actually retirees and it is common knowledge that when people retire they really enjoy traveling oriented issues. This will always require people who have quite a lot of money.

The cruise ship industry has quite a lot of benefit to the economy and other oriented aspects.  It is among the vast growing sectors as far as tourism sector is concerned. In1980 to 1994, the global growth of tourism sector was 4.5 while that of the cruise industry rated at 8.6. As the numbers of cruise visits get to raise so do the number of the passengers in those ships who contribute a great deal of revenue to the growth of the economy of the country. The other perceptible benefit from the cruise industry to the U.S is based on taxation (Elliot, et al 2005).

The cosmic contributions from the public visits are based on direct taxation as a result of the high rate of spending from the passengers and the troop while in the port.  Every passenger purchasing either a good or service is supposed to pay government and provincial tax. In the year 1996, studies show that the tourism industry alone generated 3.6 trillion dollars internationally in gross output. This resulted to around 304 billion dollars in the government operating disbursement (Elliot, et al, 2005). It is logic that in the previous years from then the number has continued obviously to rise with the world populace and wealth. An escalation of tax flow from cruise industry augments the number of public savings leading to an increase in the number of total savings.

In a place like Alaska, the cruise industry generates approximately 1.35 billion annually. Passengers spend around 914 million and  465 as far as wages are concerned. Cruising contributes over 2million annually to non profit organizations and 100 million in revenues to local and state governments (Alaska ACT, n.d). Cruise ships bring passengers who just do not stop at the ports but they as well stay in hotels of which they pay for, they travel to parks, rent vehicles, Dine in restaurants as well as buy souvenirs. Thousands of businesses benefit directly from the cruise ship industry. There are other social benefits linked to the industry.

Though there are some down beating environmental effects there are also some positive ones. Alaska for example has the sternest safety and environmental regulations in the industry. These regulations are imposed by federal and state agencies including U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Alaska Department of Environmental conservation (ADEC) and U.S Coast Guard. Cruise companies invest millions of dollars in order to perk up and adhere to the stipulated regulations. They invest in technologies to make sure that the ship has clean emissions, runs on clean fuels and discharges clean waste water. Companies have gone ahead to adopt aggressive recycling programs to make sure solid waste is minimized. They are also concerned about the welfare of the visitors thus cruise lines operating in North America have the unsurpassed safety record. They have highly trained personnel and emergency medical workers (Alaska ACT, n.d).

Though the cruise industry and generally the operating system has tried to maintain its main desired outcome as far as social and economic aspects are concerned, it has partially contributed positively to the environmental facet and done a great deal of  water and air pollution. They release volumes of grey water wastes that comprise of sewage wastewater that comes from the showers, sinks, and galleys.

Other wastes emitted are hazardous or solid wastes that produce oily bilge waste and ballast water (Asian 2008).  They go a long way to endanger marine life like fish which finally reaches human causing ailments and death due to related diseases. Other environmental draw backs that are associated with cruise industry are robbery in ports, sexual assault and case of people disappearing mysteriously. Some people bicker that the industry is a big threat to the marine and aquatic lives in which many citizens depends on.

Decision making protocol
Considering the many benefits that there are from the cruise industry, basing it mostly on the economic and social factors, it may as well appear like that is the only way to have lots of fun and great company. It may also seem like time spent at sea would have less or no impact on its surrounding environs, but that is not the case. They have great ecological impact and one that is rarely thought or debated about as far as the global warming discussion is concerned. They produce 17 of the total emissions of nitrogen dioxide in port cities. A one week voyage accumulates approximately 50 tones of garbage, 210,000 gallons containing sewage and 35, 000 gallons of water polluted by oil. Ships also destroy the coral reefs (Asian, 2008)

Most cruise companies have claimed to have the best environmental standards. Actually they have come up with a cruise ship meant to reduce emissions from engines by the use of sea water in order to remove harmful components. But what about the pathetic sorry tale of environmental fines that is being racked up by the cruise companies There are also other sad stories of sexual molestation, robbery and the negative cultural impact of the vast numbers of tourists coming to the country.

If you were heartened by visiting many places on one trip, then there are other effective alternatives for this. If at all you really envied the idea of relaxing and spending time on must board a boat, there are quite a lot of options of spending time on boats and sailing over using the often sterile incarceration of a cruise liner. You might also want to think about the long hours used by cruise to reach their destined destinations. They usually glide from one port to the other and unlike flights that are big village in which you can have a glimpse of, cruises are small village of restaurants, amenities and swimming pool in one place.

Alternatives pros and cons
 With thousands vacation options offered around the world it may prove difficult to narrow down on one. Some people generally love a cruise while others can not stand the sight of water.  Using a flight over cruise ship considering they are both costly is more logical but it depends on what you really want to achieve. A cruiser line such as Queen Mary 2 emanates 0.43kg of carbon dioxide per passenger mile as compared to haul flight that emits 0.257kg (Iris, n.d). The flight is also fast compared to cruising.

You can use boats such as Egyptian felucca or keralan houseboat which is far fascinating option to work with compared to the cruise ship (Iris, n.d). Smaller boats have distinct advantages as compared to their large counterparts. They are affordable if one was to decide to buy one and they are cheaper as far as passengers are concerned. Their insurance rate is equally low and they are less conspicuous thus the possibility of them being pirated is very low. The main disadvantage of boats is that as they get into shallow water the propulsion brings up the mud and items floating can easily be entangled in the jets and they actually require specific oil.

The other option is use of vehicles. Vehicles are fast and one is not limited to the places within the borders, but the difference is, with vehicles you can not travel to as many places as you want but only in the confines of the country. Ships unlike vehicles have lesser accidents cases (Brian, 2008).

Preferred alternative
Air travel is the fastest means of traveling. You can get from one point to the other in the least time possible than all other modes of transport. A ship on the other hand can take months and months to reach the destination. The other reason I would prefer airplanes over the ship is because they are usually much comfy to ride in when you are going to far places. Though turbulence will be experienced when using this mode of transport it is nothing compared to way the ship rolls in rough seas. Temperatures are usually kept at optimum and entertainment is offered. Planes are more convenient to travel when one is in a rush. Despite the high price which obviously is determined by your destination and the class of your seat, use of flight is much better.

Mitigation and Management
Environmental advocates have always raised concerns concerning the adequacy of the existing laws that are meant to manage the wastes and they have contented that the management is actually weak. There should be need for full account of the indirect and direct costs as well as benefits accumulated from the industry. People who are planning to travel via ship as well as maritime should have a thorough knowledge on the industry and the government should come up with effective ways to curb the social and environmental drawbacks.

Conclusion and recommendation
To have effective way forward as we embark on the best options to take as far as traveling is concerned, investing in networks for cruise ships over other alternatives infrastructure that might have a great economic and social impact should be weighed. Constructive and concrete strategies must be undertaken to improve both ecological and economic status without having to threaten the life of the marine and local environment. The cruise industry earns billions of dollars annually but the irony is that the ports always try to recoup their costs and sometimes do not even realize any reasonable gain (Ross, 2009).  It is imperative that the government is held to account in its offering of support to the industry as well as ensure that the industry is outweighing the cost to communities and local ports as well as providing maximum security to curb incidences that endanger lives.

The Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force should make effective and attainable recommendations for our great lakes and oceans since the incongruent nature of U.S regulations and governance has resulted to a dearth of rules surrounding this industry. Precedence should be given to the enforcement of the existing rules and swift implementation of the regulations that can be effectual. Member states can be a great driving force for change that can be believed in towards an ample international regulation framework for the shipping sector.

Energy conservation

There is need for all the people to conserve energy as it is the most used resource in the world. Once there is a problem in the management of energy, a society is usually faced with a crisis which in turn affects the economy of a country. Energy is one of the issues discussed in the environmental forums, where countries deliberate on the best measures to take so as to curb the crisis. For instance, there were the recent talks in Copenhagen on the Kyoto Protocol, which sparked a lot of debate on the best ways of environmental conservation. Since we are living in the world, we need to make it a better place for the existing and the future generations. The government authorities in the world governments need to encourage on the use of renewable energy, so as to reduce the greenhouse gases emissions. Technology has a role to play in the conservation of energy. This is in relation to the manner in which people construct their buildings. Without energy conservation, the earth will not be fit for human survival.

Energy conservation
In the recent past, there has been lots of question about climate change all over the world. It has been reported by scientists that the world is heating up at a faster rate than it was some years ago. The problem of Global Climate Change is more severe than the Cold war. This is because so many countries are required to solve the problem, and it is difficult to reach a consensus, unlike the cold war where few countries were involved. Therefore, several forums have been held so as to reinvigorate the Kyoto Protocol (Victor, 90). The Federal Government has set certain standards for curbing the emissions produced by automobiles. Air pollution has to be reduced through severe maintenance and inspection (Congress of the United States, 93). This has been mostly attributed to the increased use of energy all over the world. Conservation of energy thus means decreasing the use of energy but still achieving equivalent result. This is achieved when mankind starts using energy more efficiently.

Energy crisis
It is important to examine energy crisis before discussing energy conservation.  Energy crisis is any increase in the price of energy supply to an economy. There are many causes of energy crisis, some of which are addressed below. These include marker failure which results due to monopoly and market manipulation. These crises may also occur due to issues such as strikes from the union workers or government embargoes. Other factors such as overconsumption of fuel and disruptions at the refineries also lead to energy crisis. Other minor interruptions are caused by pipeline bursts and other accidents while transporting these fuels. Infrastructural damage due to bad weather and terrorists attack on important infrastructures may end up causing a global shortage in energy. Other causes may result from changes in the government regime, collapse of a monarchy or a coup may affect the supply of fuel in any given country (Pareto and Pareto, par 1  2).

Effects of energy crisis
Failure in energy markets results to shortage in energy supply. Black outs follow the consumers of the resource released during the times of low supply despite the causes. The rise on gas prices affects the consumers at the household.  Another effect is felt in those countries which rely most on tourism for their economy. Once there is an energy crisis, there follows also changes in the tourism trends since the rise in prices of fuel and gas are transferred to the consumer (Pareto and Pareto, par 3).
 
Due to these shortages, there is need for conservation of the available sources. Because some crisis never occur since they were planned, there is always need to have a department that deals with energy crisis in any country. Crisis management may be enforced by the authorities with curfews set so as to increase conservation of energy at the same time reducing its consumption. Worst cases may see the nation facing serious power rationing. Some facilities may need to shut down their operation so as to save on energy consumption leading to a humanitarian crisis (Watson, par.20-22). Energy crisis will always require mitigation measures to be put in place. Fuel reserves are therefore required to supply fuel in times of a crisis, energy policies may then be set up in each country so as to achieve greater intensity in the energy sector (Pareto  Pareto, par.2).

Energy conservation Importance
It is very important to conserve energy because most of the energy sources are limited. Once they are exhausted, then it becomes difficult to have them replaced. Conserving the available energy sources or through using the renewable sources would ensure that the future generations ability to use the same resources is not being compromised. It is very important to conserve our non renewable sources of energy because their continued use has got its own implications on the environment. For instance, consumption of energy derived from fossils has got a negative impact on air and water. Pollution in the sea and the air are among the effects of the fossil fuel usage. This is normally through carbon dioxide emission which causes green house effect (EPA 2)

The green house effect is a situation whereby, carbon emitted from the burning of oil, coal and also gas in motor vehicle engines, heating systems and power stations rises to the atmosphere and as a result acts as a transparent blanket which contributes or leads to global warming. The results of the global warming have been witnessed whereby weather patterns have changed and consequently, it has impacted negatively in the lives and health of human beings. Other effects which result from the global warming might include the rise in sea levels which affects the coast line operations and also major changes in the patterns in which vegetation grows which may leads to some plant species becoming extinct (EPA 2).

Another reason as to why there is need to conserve energy is because of prevention of the environment we live in.  Considering the case of sulphur dioxide emission into the atmosphere, the effects associated with it are not minor. Once this gas combines with water and the dissolved oxygen in the clouds, a reaction takes place resulting to acid rain precipitation. The effects of the acid rain include killing of marine life and vegetation as well as reacting with limestone rocks which have been used I buildings thus causing destruction to them (EPA 2).

Energy conservation techniques
One of the techniques is by changing what one uses. There are several energy conservation measures which can be employed to ensure energy conservation is implemented right from the home.  These techniques include the following one may chose to walk or ride on a bicycle for the shorter distances which he needs to commute. This would ensure that, the contribution of carbon dioxide through automobiles is greatly reduced. In lighting at homes, offices and other areas, one can opt to use the compact fluorescent bulbs which are longer lasting and their energy use is very efficient. These bulbs are expected to last ten more times than the ordinary incandescent light bulbs. Instead of one using a clothes dryer, one may go for the open air drying techniques and thus save on electricity. One should do a market search in order to determine the various appliances available. It is advisable for one to buy energy efficient appliances although theses appliances may cost a little more. However, it will be possible to cover up the extra cost through the utility bill savings (EPA 2).

Another alternative is by change of what one does. For instance, during the winter, one can acquire a programmable thermostat which can automatically regulate the temperatures inside the house. The temperatures can be set at 68 F during the day s operations and 55F when one retires to bed. In order to minimize on the loss of heat in the house, the ceiling will need to be insulated same case to the walls and floor of the house. Instead of using air conditioning facilities, it is good enough to have a tree planted next to the window to serve the purpose of an air conditioner (EPA 2-3).

Recycling of waste such as newspapers, plastics and others will require less energy than a fresh production. It is therefore necessary to recycle whatever can be recycled before thinking of making a brand new commodity as this technique would ensure that conservation of energy is being considered first. Another technique to employ is washing of clothes in bulk and only in cold water. If machines are to be used, then there is the need to set the machines, dishwashers as well as the clothes driers in the energy saving mode (EPA 2-3).

One may also conserve energy by improving on house keeping habits. For instance, one may need to set the water heaters at a temperature of 120 F and not at 150 F. It is always good to put off lights when leaving the house or in rooms which are not in use. Ventilations and entry points to rooms which are not being used and thus must always be kept closed to avoid loss of energy in spreading to all the rooms and no one would use them. House windows and drapes may need to be closed after hot days or after sunset in order to avoid losing the warmth acquired during daytime. These windows must always be properly sealed to avoid air leaking into the house or heat getting lost to the outside through the leaking points. This would reduce the costs of heating or cooling by around 40 percent as the leaks contribute to a lot more in the conditioning of a room (EPA 3).

A very important technique in energy conservation is through education. One needs to get knowledge on the issue of energy conservation. Information can be got form several sources such as the power companies, journals, magazines and books which talk about energy conservation. Once this knowledge has been acquired, it will contribute to enhanced conservation if it is shared with friends, family members, neighbors and friends (EPA 3).

Building design
The temperature and illumination control of a building largely depends on the building location and its surroundings. These include the trees, landscaping activities and buildings or hills which can shelter the building from wind and sunlight. In designing any building, the climate must well be thought of. For instance, in the cooler climates, a building designed with windows facing the southern direction is subjected to more light which means more energy from the sun. In energy conservation, this reduces the amount of energy being used thus encouraging conservation of the available energy and its sources. In the design of a roof, it is often well to install a dark roof in the building because dark roofs may become hotter up to 39 C than the roofs with a reflective covering. The heat absorbed is transmitted into the building thus reducing the need for mechanical heaters in the house. An effective energy efficient design may encompass switching devices using the passive infrared technology for switching off lights in areas which are not in use such as toilets and bathrooms, corridors and office blocks in non working hours. In this design, a computerized system of building management links all these parts for centralized management (Pogany).

The commercial sector is now slowly adopting the smart meters for internal monitoring of energy use in buildings. This mode of monitoring and presentation is highly dynamic and it is quite presentable. In existing building, power quality analyzers which estimate the power usage, harmonical distortions, swells and interruptions among others can be installed. The intention of doing all this is to improve or make the building more efficient in power usage terms (Green Energy Efficient Homes 2).

In the industrial sector, in the process of using electricity in the industrys process, heat is produced as a byproduct. The heat can be trapped and recycled for steam production, heating or other processes which may be requiring some little energy. This process may be very efficient in conservation of energy since it converts over 90 percentage heat to usable source of energy. Similarly, there are advanced boilers in the industry and furnaces which work with less fuel but operating at high temperatures and at the same time producing fewer pollutants yet being very effective and very competent. In the operations of an electric motor which constantly uses electric energy, there can be integrated in them a drive for adjusting their running speed so as to give out energy compatible to the immediate load.

On the side of automobiles, there are several ways of improving their energy efficiency. One of the ways is through drag minimization using improved aerodynamics so as to increase the vehicles fuel efficiency. Another way to cutting on the vehicles fuel consumption is through reduction of the vehicle weight. One of the ways of doing this is the use of composite materials. By inflating tires well and using the advanced type, gasoline usage can be saved and the fuel economy improved by over 3 percent.

Another better system to use is the use of hybrid system of cars and the electric cars. Some of the cars employ regenerative braking so as to utilize energy which in other normal cars is wasted away. The emergence of plug-in hybrids has increased the capacity a car battery can have. With this plug-in technology, one can drive for at least 40 miles using electricity alone and without the need to recharge. Also, installed in these cars is a gas engine which comes in to aid when the battery runs down.

Issues with energy conservation
One of the issues resulting from the energy conservation is the Jevons paradox. This is a situation whereby the critics argue that improvements on technology enhance energy efficiency rather than reduction on energy use. This paradox occurs in two ways the increase in energy reduces the cost thus encouraging more consumption. Secondly, this increase in efficiency leads to growth of the economy. This leads to energy use being pulled towards the whole economy. This doesnt mean that the result is negative. Efficiency in fuel consumption implies a greater and higher quality of life and production (Carl 3).

Businessmen and other experts in business argue that bright lighting is very essential in purchasing.  However, health wise, it has been shown that headaches, high blood pressures and even stress including workers errors are more propagated in over illuminated places. Natural daylight generally increases productivity in workers while at the same time reducing the amount of energy being utilized (Bertodi  Paolo 5).

With the rise in technology, telecommuting has become a significant chance in conserving energy because many people will have to work from their homes thus reducing the burden to commute every day to their places of work. Though the electric motors have done a very great deal in the moving machine industry, they contribute to great loss in electricity of about 10-20 percent which is converted into mechanical energy. Another issue in conservation of energy is the misinformation consumers have on energy saving. Also the research the consumers have to undertake on whatever is there on the market is too costly in terms of the time it takes. This makes it better for them to purchase cheaper products which use fossil fuels. It the technological advancements are to be embraced then it will change the existing behavior of the people (Bertodi  Paolo 5)

Advantages of energy conservation
There are a number of advantages in energy conservation. For instance when energy conservation is taken into action, budgets which are connected to those utilities are lowered. These savings from energy conservation have got a very significant impact more than other initiatives geared towards big investments. Also, energy conservation makes the equipments and machines last longer. This is because the operations per year have been reduced hence less replacements and servicing.  As a result of this, the requirements on capital budget are reduced (Woodroof  2).  

Another advantage on conservation of energy is reduction on maintenance costs. This is because, a machine running fewer hours per year requires less maintenance materials as well as labor requirements. Energy conservation helps in reducing the risk of price spikes during energy supply (Woodroof 2). All the above points are reflecting on the financial benefits. There are however many other advantages of energy conservation as explained below.

In countries where selling of credit emissions from the environments markets is allowed, these organizations can make their claims of emission reduction. Once they sell their carbon credits, they raise revenue for the organization. Energy conservation also helps organizations built up their names in public thus acquiring good reputation in the public as they can differentiate themselves for being environment friendly (Woodroof 3)
Because of this, the organization which conserves energy can attract a lot of people thus end up retaining the best employees, clients and suppliers among others.  In conserving the environment, the firm can save a lot from the risk of legal penalties due to environmental degradation (Woodroof 2).  This is because if an organization generates less waste, environmental regulations are evitable. The unforeseen legal costs and political risks can therefore be kept at a check.

Conclusion
 In response to future crisis in petroleum and other energy sources, green energy principles and sustainable living must be emphasized more. Alternative fuel sources such as fuel cell technology biodiesel, hydrogen fuel and others should be researched more. Some mechanisms which are more efficient such as the Negawatt power can lead to a more current generation. This term is often used in describing the increased efficiency in trading and consumption in order to increase the market supply rather than to increase the plant capacity to generate power. Energy is a very usefully commodity for any society and all should be done to conserve it so as avoid any form of energy crises.

Why Environmental Planners should consider Economic, Social and Environmental Factors in their Planning Activities

A plan is a purposeful, forward looking scheme or design, often with coordinated priorities, options and measures that elaborates and implements policy (Stabile, Donald R. 1986, 45(1) 43-44). Planning involves setting goals or targets, refining policies, setting minimum standards, allocating resources and providing funds for measures to achieve the stated aims and objectives. Environmental planning are activities with the objective of preserving or enhancing environmental values or resources.
       
The emergence of global and national environmental degradation of an unprecedented scale has triggered a belief that past planning approaches were too narrow and shortsighted. Complex intertwining of economic factors, natural resources, and environment protection is no longer adequately handled by traditional planning techniques. Development planners and decision makers are now expected to integrate social, economic, and environmental factors at all levels of planning.  Planning alone, no matter how integrated, will not be sufficient for sustainable development to emerge. The fruits of integrated economic and environmental planning are only likely to be enjoyed in a social, cultural, and political milieu that is fully supportive.
         
Economic, social and environmental factors must be thoroughly integrated at all levels of society, to avoid the unintended consequences of unilateral development in any one factor and to contribute to sustainable development (Ortolano, L. 1984, 13-18). Excessive emphasis on economic development tends to lead to major pollution problems, which tend to have greatest impact on poor communities. Excessive attention to nature conservation at the expense of economic development would not generate enough national income to protect natural ecosystems. Environmental planning is a field of study that is concerned with a specified societys joint stewardship over its resources that ultimately includes those of the entire globe(Stabile, Donald R. 1986, 45(1) 43-44) . The aims of environmental planning are to put together the   Public sector public sector  Urban planning urban planning with the concerns of   Environmentalism environmentalism to guarantee   Sustainable development sustainable development, particularly of air, water, soil and rock resources. Environmental planners seeks to put into consideration the future social growth of society,   Economic development economic development, such as Transportation transportation,  Sanitation sanitation, and other services in legislator decisions, by targeting additional sustainable (social, ecological and equity) outcomes as important factors in the decision-making process.
   
The principal concerns among environmental planners includes the encouragement of Sustainable development sustainable development, equity,   Environmental justice environmental justice, Green building green building technologies, and the preservation of environmentally sensitive areas. An Integrated environmental planning assessments covers areas such as Land use land use,  Socio-economics socio-economics,  Transportation transportation,   Environmental economics economic and  H House housing characteristics,  Air pollution air pollution, Noise pollution noise pollution, the Wetlands wetlands, habitat of the  Endangered species endangered species, Flood zone (page does not exist) flood zones susceptibility,  Coastal zone (page does not exist) coastal zones Erosion erosion, and Visual study (page does not exist) visual studies among others. Environmental planners finds this assessment an important tool in planning their activities since it gives an objective view of the natural resources, the environment as a system, the scientific perception and the social scientific outlook.
     
Economic factors in environmental planning incorporate the increase in the amount of people in a nations population with sustained growth from a simple, low-income Economy economy to a modern, high-income economy (Maureen L. Cropper and Wallace E. 1992, 30(2). Its scope includes the process and policies by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of people within its environment. Economic development embraces sociological explore on business organization and enterprise development from a historical and comparative perspective specific processes of the evolution (growth, transformation) of markets and management-employee relations and culturally related cross-national similarities and differences in patterns of industrial organization (Allen K. Kneese and Clifford S. Russell, 1987, 159-64)

Environmental social ethics is the part of Environmental philosophy environmental philosophy which considers extending the traditional boundaries of principles from solely including humans to including the non-human world (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). There are many social-ethical planning and decisions that human beings make with respect to the environment. For instance Should we carry on to Clear cut clear cut forests for the sake of human use Should we persist to construct Internal combustion engine gasoline powered vehicles What environmental obligations do we require to maintain for the future generations Is it correct for humans to deliberately cause the Extinction extinction of a species for their convenience Planning in relation to environmental ethics grew up in response to the work of scientists when environmentalists started urging philosophers to consider the philosophical aspects of environmental problems.

Environmental degradation is strategic challenge confronting the glob today. Demand to showing corporate citizenship, the health, safety and security of both the people and the natural environment have become a litmus test for a good community. Successful organizations today are not only measured by how much profit they make but also how well they respond to the call to protect the natural environment.

Environmental planners should realize that the issues concerning the environment are not purely scientific but rely also on planning and management Paul Hawken (not yet started) Hawken, Paul. The environment should be part of everyones vision, mission, and strategy which need to be effectively planned to remain competitive. Environmental burden is an issue that affects world citizens and they have the right to demand that corporate responsibility be properly defined to take into consideration these concerns. For instance, for any project to be implemented in the United States of America, environmental planners contracts with a full range of environmental regulations for all levels, administered federally by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency.  A rigorous environmental process has to be undertaken to examine social, economic and environmental, impacts and their related possible mitigation of any construction project. Depending on the size and impact of the project, a broad environmental appraisal known as an Environmental Impact Statement Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is developed, and Environmental Assessment Environmental Assessment (EA) which is a less extensive version of the later is developed for a relatively small projects. Procedures follow guidelines from approved published regulations. Today, environmental planners should ensure that every individual is adapting strategies in response to these concerns. World communities should react by adopting international and national laws to ensure compliance to environmental standards. It should be clear that green products may in fact, provide competitive advantage (Ortolano, L. 1984).

Environmental impact assessment is, in its simplest form, a planning tool that is now generally regarded as an integral component of sound decision making. Environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making are crucial as required in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). It enables environmental planners to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present the predictions and options to decision-makers. By using EIA both environmental and economic benefits can be achieved, such as reduced cost and time of project implementation and design, avoided treatmentclean-up costs and impacts of laws and regulations. As a planning tool, it has both an information gathering and decision making component which provides the decision maker with an objective basis for granting or denying approval for a proposed development. The purpose of the environmental assessment process  in planning are  to support the goals of environmental protection and sustainable development,  integrate environmental protection and economic decisions at the earliest stages of planning an activity,  predict environmental, social, economic, and cultural consequences of a proposed activity and to assess plans to mitigate any adverse impacts resulting from the proposed activity, and to provide for the involvement of the public, department of the Government and Government agencies in the review of the proposed activities.
Though there has been much controversy on seriousness of the global warming problem, global warming is a real threat to the wellbeing of all of us in the modern world (Johansen, 2002). With the unpredictable climate changes we are experienced in the world today the global community must address global warming. Available scientific research finding have it that global warming is mainly a direct result of mankind activities.

Industrialization in the globe has led to increased production of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere (Mank, 2005). Still, deforestation, mainly due to human activities such as clearing forests for farming and settlement has also has also led to increased greenhouse gases in the earths atmosphere (Michaels, 2p004). Being less dense that air, these greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and other hydrocarbon gases have been established to rise up and form an impenetrable blanket in the earths atmosphere outer limits. This layer absorbs infrared radiation from the surface of the earth preventing it from escaping into space and emitting it back to the earths atmosphere thus increasing the earths atmospheric temperatures, a phenomenon otherwise known as the greenhouse effect (Mank, 2005).

Over the past several decades, the human community has experienced many unpredictable climate changes. Sea water levels are on the rise, either due to melting of polar ice caps or due to expansion of sea water as a result of increased temperatures on the earth surface (Johansen, 2002). Again, the world is experiencing extreme weather conditions such as droughts, flood, heat storms, and diminishing plant and animal populations. All these are attributed to global warming.

With greenhouse gases being the leading cause of global warming, man must be the main cause (Johansen, 2002). The world forest cover, responsible for absorbing carbon dioxide gas, has reduced by over 30 percent over the past two decades (Mank, 2005). Industrialization has been termed as a main economic activity over the past century. Therefore, with the unpredictable climate changes witnessed and the scientific evidence on their cause, global warming is a serious problem that must be address for the good of the present and future mankind generations.

Describe discuss the development of purchasing supply chain (sourcing) management and coherent sustainability conditionscriteria.

Critically review the possibility of an integrated approach to purchasing  supply chain (sourcing) management

Introduction
In the contemporary business environment, firms are perceived to be important actors in development of sustainability, and in the current business practice, many focal firms are being held responsible for the environmental problems that have been caused by their suppliers.  The effects have led to the loss of reputations of some firms, and consequently loss of revenues.  Thus, to avert these problems, firms are increasingly incorporating environmental aspects into their supply chain management by amending their purchasing processes. With   intensifications of pressures from different stakeholders, many organisations have taken positive steps in their supply chains to enhance their sustainable profiles. It is essential to realise that   the trends towards globalisation has made firms to seek for different suppliers to sources for raw materials, and to enhance corporate public reputations. Firms need to efficiently manage its supply chain in order to enhance sustainability. Teuteberg and Wittstruck (2010) defined sustainability as the integration of environmental, social and economic issues in the organisational policy. However, supply chain management is defined as the management of a network of interconnected businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and service packages required by end customers. (Teuteberg, and Wittstruck, 2010, p 1001).

Tan and Zailani (2009) also defined supply chain as processes of   life cycle that supports the movement of products and services from suppliers to customers through the physical, financial, and information aspects of moving products. On the other hand, the definition of supply chain could be attributed to the activities and system of people that involved creating a product through given resources and information before moving it to customers. To achieve long-term economic, environmental and social dimensions, firm needs to integrate sustainable supply chain in the business policy. Sustainable supply chain is defined as the coordination of inter-organisation business process in order to create value network among individual company. Essentially, sustainability focuses on the improvement of the peoples quality of life without the increase in the use of natural resources.  The bid to enhance global sustainability, many stakeholders suddenly take an entire new look on the tradition manufacturing process.  In addition, there are growing pressures on firms for the implementation on the green supply chain practices. Thus, sustainable business practices are no longer optional to corporate organisations. The businesses have realised that in order to create value, there is need to adopt innovative business practices and the implementation of special skills to adopt sustainable development. These initiatives start from raw material procurement to the systematic product designing, packaging, assembling, and manufacturing and logistics stages in the distribution networks. (Tan, Zailani 2009).

The objective of this paper is to describe and discuss the development of purchasing a supply chain (sourcing) management and coherent sustainability conditionscriteria.

Thus, to enhance greater understanding of sustainability in purchasing and supply chain, the paper provides development of purchasing and supply chain with special emphasis to sustainability conditions.

Development of Purchasing and Supply chain and coherent sustainability conditions
In the contemporary business environment, the survival of any business is the achievement of   short and long-term goals. However, the pressures from different stakeholders on organisations to implement sustainable supply chain in order to create values. Firms have taken steps to implement sustainability especially sustainable logistics. Essentially, the traditional logistics only involves the process, planning, and procurement of raw materials from the point of origin and distribute the products to the point of consumption. Although, the logistics aspect is one of the critical aspect of the company activities in order to ensure that the goods reach the desired customers. However, the traditional logistics activities do not take into consideration of sustainability for the efficient procurement of raw materials and distribution of goods. It is essential to realise that truck vehicles used for distribution of goods and materials contribute to the high percentage of carbon emission that lead to environmental degradation. Niwa (2008) argued that transport sector contributed to the 17 of environmental degradation, which reveals that logistics activities have contributed to the environmental problems.

However, with pressures from different stakeholders to protect environment, firms have taken steps to implement green logistics in the supply chain management. (Zhu, Sharkis, Lai, et al, 2007). Thus, the Green logistics involve undertaking the network planning for the flow of materials and finished goods to be sustainable in nature. Thus, the development of green logistics attempts to address the problems caused by the traditional logistics activities. For example, there was launching of Green Logistics Partnership Promotion Program in 2008 to address the problems caused by the carbon dioxide emission, which has been caused by the logistics activities. ( Niwa, 2009).

Moreover, many companies are still implementing the traditional purchasing and supply chain management in their business activities. The major objectives of purchasing and supply chain is to achieve efficient procurement of material for the companys use at a minimum costs. Although, many companies have been able to achieve their objectives in sourcing, evaluating and selecting  different suppliers for efficient sources of materials. However, contrary to the environmental regulations, that involves the protection of environment many organisations have not yet implemented sustainability in sourcing for materials. For example, many suppliers do not comply with ISO 14001 (International Environmental Management Standard) environmental standards before supplying materials to companies. In addition, many companies in the UK do not check the requirement of their suppliers whether they meet environmental standard before contracting them.  Thus, the overall result of this is the increase in environmental problems caused from using materials that are not environmental friendly in the production of   goods. Thus, with the intensification national and international regulations, the concept of Green Supply Chain Management (GSCM) or Sustainable Supply Chain Management (GSCM), which its focus, is to undertake environmental quality when sourcing for materials has come into focus. Thus, the GSCM is to ensure that firms make use of   non-toxic materials for production process, and all materials are sourced from suppliers who abide with environmental standard. In other word, the GSCM employ firms to incorporate effective utilisation of non-toxic materials in order to produce the green outputs. ( Darnall, Jolley,  Handfield, 2008, Emmett,  Sood,2010).

Typically, many regulations have been passed to make GSCM to be effective. For example, REGULATION (EC) No 19072006, which was based on the chemical policy on the registration and evaluation of chemical in order to ensure the chemicals meet EU standards, was passed. Since many governments  have  started passing regulations to employ firms to implement sustainability in their production process, the next section provides the possibility of an integrated approach to purchasing and supply chain (sourcing) management that may allow for transition to real sustainability.

Possibility of an integrated approach to purchasing  supply chain (sourcing) management that may allow for transition to real sustainability

There are various methods firms could employ to integrate sustainable purchasing and supply chain in their management policies.

First, management could integrate traditional logistics activities into the green logistics. It is essential to realise that green logistics involve using transportation to procure raw materials and distribute companys products to enhance sustainability.  Typically, distribution of goods to consumers and procurement of materials need to be implemented in a sustainable way   to reduce energy produced through trucks that are being used for distribution. For example, it is advisable for organisations to start using the hybrid trucks that have been noted to produce lesser energy during the transportation process. (Sbihi, Eglese, 2007). It is essential to realise that the carbon dioxide produced in the transportation sector contribute to the large percentage of the total carbon dioxide produced. Thus, since hybrid vehicles produce lesser carbon dioxide, corporate organisations could   start implementing the use of hybrid vehicles for logistics activities.

Another method corporate organisation could implement sustainable purchasing and supply chain management is to reduce the number of vehicles being used for logistics activities. Organisation can achieve this by efficiently routing their transport networks to reduce transport distances and simplify their route of vehicle delivery. The implementation of this will reduce the carbon dioxide emission being produced by vehicle as a result of reduction of number of vehicles.

Moreover, corporate organisation could employ modal shift in their logistics activities in order to achieve sustainable purchasing and supply chain. The modal shift involves shifting from using vehicles for logistics activities to railway. Empirical research revealed that railway generates lesser carbon dioxide. For example, the trucks emit seven times of carbon dioxide than railway. (Niwa, 2009). Thus, by employing modal shift for logistics activities, organisations could enhance sustainability in their purchasing and supply chain. However, firms need to ensure maximum care when employing modal shift. Although, modal shift has the benefits of reducing carbon dioxide emission, there is needed to take the issues of cost, quality and lead time into consideration. The company could employ modal shift for customers that can accept their goods to be delivered at a slightly longer period. (Niwa, 2009).

Another method corporate organisation could integrate   sustainability in the supply chain is to design the products that are environmental friendly. To achieve this objective, corporate organisations could use raw materials that are less toxic in designing their products. The designing method will change the company product to green product, and this will enhance EcoDesign for the products. Thus, purchasing and supply department should only source for materials that can be used for EcoDesign in order to produce products that are environmental friendly. It is essential to realise that to source for raw materials that are less toxic, there is need high degree of cooperation from the company potential suppliers. Typically, Organisation needs to develop policy and planning to ensure that suppliers meet certain standard before being contracted. Typically, organisations must evaluate all suppliers and scrutinise which suppliers meet all the requirements and standard laid down by all the stakeholders with regard to logistics, and manufacturing. To ensure that firms sources for right suppliers. A corporate firm should ensure that all suppliers contracted comply with ISO 14001 certification.

Moreover, firms could make use of recycle products in the packaging, and products design. Typically, the recycle product and reuse materials decrease the harmful and carbon dioxide emission. The commitment of corporate organisations to make use of 100 renewable and recycle products will reduce energy emission and increase sustainable purchasing and supply chain. (Khiewnavawongsa, Schmidt, 2008).

Finally, firm could redesign its store in order to comply with sustainability. For example, all materials used in the store could be changed to achieve environmental protection. For example, all light in the store should be changed to the light that produces lesser energy by 30 -40. Moreover, the store frame could be changed from steel to the sustainable timber frame in order to generate lesser energy in the store.  (Leahy, 2007).

Although, the integration of sustainability is advantageous to firms because it can lead to costs reduction and increase in firm competitive market performances. However, firm must take extra care before integrating sustainability in the purchasing and supply chain. There is need to employ systematic method in the integration process in order for the management to achieve full benefits in the sustainable purchasing and supply chain management.

Conclusion
This paper discusses the purchasing and supply chain with special emphasis to the coherent sustainability. Typically, in the contemporary business environment, business organisations are not just adopting and implementing policies based on the interests of only the executives. However, the executives must consider external factors when making decision concerning the products manufacturing, packaging and supply. With increase in pollution, carbon emission, and other production activities leading to the environmental degradations, many external forces are making pressures on the corporate organisations to abide to sustainability in order to achieve value creation in the supply chain. With realisation of what firms stand to lose in the contemporary business environment, which can lead to revenue loss, many firms are implementing sustainable supply chain in order to create value. This paper has demonstrated that purchasing and supply chain could lead to improvement of company image and reduce level of green house emission generated by corporate firms. With the advantages that firms  could realise from purchasing and supply chain implementation, the paper provide the methods firm could integrate purchasing and supply chain in order to enhance sustainability.  One of the critical approach discuss in the paper is to ensure that all suppliers meet the standard laid down by the corporate firms and part of the requirements is to meet the standard laid down by the ISO 14001. Moreover, firm needs to integrate traditional logistics into green logistics in order to achieve sustainability.

Acid rain

The issue of acid rain has over time been a subject that has generated intense debate among scientists since its invention in 1852. It has been a controversial topic between countries who accuse each other of being the source of pollution. This is because the problem of acid rain cannot be contained within the region where it was caused. For instance, Norway and Sweden are known to receive over 90 of their pollution from abroad. Similarly, the amount of acid rain received in Canada is caused by the level of industrialization that prevails in the United States. Almost, everybody is aware of acid rain but very few knows exactly what acid rain is, what causes it, what are the effects and impacts and how best  we can cope with the growing problem of acid rain (Munton, 88). This paper will basically focus on the four aspects as we look on how best we can address this global affair.

The term acid rain is used to describe acid deposition or any form of precipitation with unusual levels of both nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Acid rain is also known to occur in form of snow or fog that eventually finds its way to the earth surface. Rain water is known to have a Ph value of 7. However, when it travels through air, it dissolve chemicals and washes down particles and other components that could be present in air. Some of the components present in the atmosphere are the sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which react with water to form both sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The acids then come down in the form of acid rain with a Ph value of around 2.3 which can have far reaching effects on the ecosystem. The prevalence of acid rain varies from region to region depending with the pollution levels. For instance, in the industrialized countries like China, Soviet Union and U.S.A acid rain levels are normally high. Also, acid rain is also prevalent in third world countries which lack clear guidelines regarding pollution.

Another area that has generated intense debate and disagreement is about the real causes of acid rain. Scientists have tried to unravel this by identifying that the real causes of acid rain are both natural and artificial. However, scientists have shown that the causes are more artificial since manmade activities account for 95 of the toxic gases in the atmosphere. Industries are the source of gaseous emissions which increase the levels of both nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide (Environmental Protection Agency, 2002).

Burning of coal is a contributor of the acid rain. Coal is known to have over 2 sulphur which when burnt is released to the atmosphere. So far, the use of coal as a source of fuel in industries is known to account for over 70 of the sulphur dioxide emissions. Some industries also rely on process of raw ore which is composed of sulphides. Once the raw ore is burnt in presence of oxygen, sulphur dioxide is released it the atmosphere which later react with normal rain to form acid rain.

Automobiles account for the increased prevalence of acid rain. They are known to account for 50 of the nitrogen dioxide emissions. The use of fossil fuels in power plants also account for the increasing levels of nitrogen dioxide. Though minimal, acid rain is also known to arise to natural factors. Wild fires which are prevalent in Australia, volcanic eruptions and the natural decomposition of bacteria contribute to the increase in the levels of nitrogen oxide in the atmosphere which further combine with rain water to for acid rain.

Effects
Acid rain is known to have far reaching effects on aquatic life, soil, forests, wetlands, buildings and on human beings. To the forests, acid rain has resulted to the slowed growth of trees. Foresters have observed that instead of trees growing green healthy, their leaves and needles are actually turning brown. Researchers have associated this with soil degradation which is a direct consequence of the acid rain. This has been the case in Eastern U.S within the high elevation forests of the Appalachian Mountains.

Scientists have shown that acid rain have lasting effects on the forest floors. In that, once the acid rain comes down and some runs to streams and lakes while some is absorbed by the soil. Some of the acidity may be neutralized by the soil depending with the buffering capacity of the soil which is influenced by the thickness and composition of the soil. This provides an explanation as to why some area may experience adverse effects of acid rain than others. Acid rain is known to limit the amount of nutrients that can be absorbed by plants. This exposes the plants to a number of toxins that are normally released by the soil (Alm, 145). The trees become weak and eventually die. It has also been established that, acid rain kills the useful micro organisms and damages the waxy layer of plants thus predisposing them to diseases.

Acid rain has far reaching effects on buildings because it has a corrosive effect on limestone. Either wet or dry deposition of sulphur increases the corrosion rate in limestone and sandstone. Limestone combines with sulphuric acid which results from a combination of sulphur trioxide with water. Once the limestone reacts with the sulphuric acid, it forms calcium sulphate which is normally soluble in water. Once the calcium sulphate dissolves in water, the building may come crumbling down.

Acid rain also results to discoloration of buildings. For instance, structures like the Acropolis in Greece and the Renaissance buildings in Italy have experienced visible damage. The transport system have also experience the harmful effects of the acid rain. This is evident in Poland, where trains have to move at slow speed since the tracks have been damaged by corrosion. The effects of acid rain also extend to the aquatic life. It has resulted to leaching of harmful nutrients like mercury and aluminium from the soil and the rocks which eventually find their way to the lakes. Water is known to have its own way of dealing with acidity levels but there are times when the acidity levels are to the extreme and they are unbearable (Environmental protection Agency, 2002). This is the time when the Ph level of waterfall below 7 thus turning acidic. This results to the death of the living organisms in water.

The effects of acid rain on aquatic life extend to human beings since consumption of fish poisoned with mercury is normally harmful to humans. Acid rain does affect the economic livelihood of human beings. In that, once the aquatic life is wiped out it will directly affect the lives of those who wholly depend on it. The amount of pollution in the atmosphere is also known to be the source of the modern day health problems. For instance, the increase in the number of asthmatic patients is a direct consequence of the amount of pollution arising from industrialization levels. To the animals, the effects of the acid rain are normally felt through the food chain. Consequently, since the living organisms depend on each other for food (Alm, 149). The death of one will directly affect the live of the other.

Solutions
Since acid rain is a global affair, different jurisdictions have to unite and come up with viable solutions to the same. First, the world should unite in strengthening the capacity of the environmental groups who are out to reduce if not to eliminate the effects of acid rain. Such programs like the Acid rain program should be strengthened and this will reduce the amount of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides present in the atmosphere.

To come up with solution we also need to identify the source of the pollutants. It is well known that industries and automobiles are the main source of pollution (Munton, 91). To curb this, governments should formulate strict guidelines about pollution where the polluter will be supposed to pay.

Since most of our water bodies have turned acidic it is advisable that governments should consider adding quicklime which would make aquatic life habitable. This procedure has so far proved to be economically unfeasible since the water bodies are too large and the best way to do this is by targeting the source of the pollution. This is so far yielding fruits since some industries are now using scrubbers which limit the amount of sulphur dioxide released into the atmosphere (Environmental protection Agency, 2002). Automobile owners are also heeding to this call since they are fitting their vehicles with catalytic converters which renders the toxic gases harmless.

The general public has a role to play in this. In that, they can cut down on the power consumption and use alternative sources of energy like the solar power and the wind energy. This will considerably reduce the amount of coal used to produce electricity which will further translate to a reduction in the pollution levels. At this point, it is worth concluding that acid rain is a global phenomenon which is not localized within where it was caused. Since it is affecting everyone of us either directly or indirectly, individual responsibility and the use of alternative source solar energy would go a long way I  reversing this life threatening trend of acid rain.

Oil Slick Ecological Sustainability of Sea Otters two decades after the Exxon Valdez oil spill

This paper addresses a current BBC news headline on the long term effects of major oil spills on local ecology and what we learn from such disasters.  It also summarizes a research article addressing this issue, discussing the potential for Sea Otter Enhydra lutris exposure to subsurface oil residues 17 years following the Exxon Valdez oil spill.  Finally it relates the two by discussing how the scientific research confirms or negates the concerns reported in the news story.

There has long been concern about the effects of industry on ecological sustainability.  For decades companies have often moved forward with new technologies and expansion with little regard to how manufacturing waste and disposal affects the environment.  It is only recently that business has moved towards a more global earth conscious outlook and in doing so it has become important to revisit past indiscretions to understand the long term effects of environmental negligence.  When the Exxon Valdez spilled oil off the coast of Alaska in 1989 there was an immediate impact on the local ecology, but we are now seeing how difficult it can be for populations to recover through research done with Sea Otter populations in the area.  Sea Otter populations in northern Knight Island, Alaska have failed to recover at the same rate as other organisms, so research has been done to determine if this is due to continued exposure to oil residues from the 1989 spill.  Need more specific details from 2009 news story and need to reference.
In March of 2009 BBC revisited the Exxon Valdez oil spill and its affects on the environment and the industry in Stephen Dowlings article, What we learned from the Exxon Valdez.  He mentions how the long term effects have changed industry practice, but also comments on how not just the spill, but inappropriate cleaning practices did as much damage to Prince William Sound as the oil itself.  Prince William Sound is a sheltered area with predominantly soft sandy sediment.  Fresh sand deposits easily bury oil and so it is difficult to know the entirety of areas affected.  He also discussed how industry practice in oil clean up has been modified to do less damage to the existing ecology.  Following the spill, cleaning crews scoured the coastline to get rid of oil sludge which damaged much of the vital bottom layer of the food chain.  Many of these organisms are also important to breaking down the oil.  Damaging this vital part of the chain slows the recovery of larger organisms which also saw the greatest immediate damage.  Oil remnants in the sandy sediment and the destruction of the base layer of the trophic system could be one of the major contributors to the slow recovery of Sea Otters and other organisms in this area.

In a 2007 research article from Environmental Science and Technology, researchers Paul Boehm, Davis Page, Jerry Neff and Charles Johnson discuss the potential continued effects the 1989 oil spill could have on the Sea Otter population in the northern Knight Island area of Prince William Sound, Alaska.  Researchers chose this area based of previous surveys done on the presence of subsurface oil in this area and the presence of Sea Otter foraging sites.  Specifically they were looking for pits of clam foraging, as clams make up 70 of the Sea Otters diet and would have the largest effect on sustained health of the species.  The digging of clams would also be how Sea Otters would be exposed to SSO settles in the substrate.  They surveyed 43 shoreline segments that had been documented by previous NOAA shoreline surveys.  They also surveyed previous SSO sites that no longer contained residues and non-SSO sites as a frame of reference on Sea Otter foraging patterns and distribution.  They classified a foraging site as 20 pits located in an area, which proved to be a conservative estimate, as areas that fit that criteria had hundreds to thousands of pits.  Researches found only one of 29 SSO sites to also be an otter foraging site.  They hypothesized that because of spatial separation of Sea Otter pits from SSO sites that there a low likelihood of SSO exposure to foraging otters and their findings supported their hypothesis.  Their research proposed a possible correlation between Sea Otter foraging and shoreline type.  It also noted that the areas of highest SSO concentration are rockier areas where foraging has been least preferred even prior to the Exxon Valdez spill.
Though it appears as if there is little possibility of exposure to SSO residue from Sea Otter foraging there was still foraging in SSO areas and no research was done on Sea Otter biology and levels of exposure.  There was also no data about which Sea Otters were foraging in which areas.  There could be a connection between reproductive function and exposure or there is the possibility more ecologically fit Sea Otters are foraging in the more difficult areas where there is a higher concentration off SSO residue.  Though research suggests exposure to SSO residue is minimal resulting from foraging, there are still other ways in which Sea Otters could be exposed.  The study did not look into chemical levels present in the clams as a result of oil present in the sediment or organisms on which clams feed.  The BBC news story mentioned the difficulty of finding oil in the sandy sediments of that area and so it follows that biological magnification could be an explanation for slow Sea Otter recovery, not necessarily direct exposure from foraging.   There could also be a multitude of other reasons, unrelated to the spill that populations have failed to recover since the spill.  The research done in the northern Knight Island area didnt support or negate the BBC news story as there wasnt sufficient evidence to say that oil is not affecting the Sea Otter population in other ways.  The BBC article brought up new questions not covered by the research in its discussion of what we learned from the spill and hopefully that will aid in future ecologic studies of population recovery in this region.  

Pesticide Residue

Problem statement
The invention of technology has its own advantages and disadvantages. In agriculture the use of pesticides has become the first option to many farmers in controlling pests.  Most of the farmers pay less attention to the precautions that are given by the manufacturers as far as the use of the pesticides is concerned.  They take little caution to protect themselves or other people around from the negative effects of the pesticides.

Most of the foods people have been consuming have been discovered to have a certain percentage of pesticide residues. However many people have been ignorant about this. The technology of food processing is also growing substantially. Much of food processed is preserved using pesticides.

The international trade is also growing very fast. Animal feed and human food can be sold from one country to another. Most of these products have been discovered to contain pesticides residues which have negative impact on human health and to our environment. The problem of pesticide has become enormous, everyday people are dying after intoxication by the very food they eat every day.  Most water bodies have been contaminated by water run offs which contain pesticide residues. The pesticide has degraded our environment and deteriorated many peoples health as well as killing some people. There is a need to create awareness as far as this issue is concerned so as to eradicate ignorance and intensify efforts to avoid more harm to our environment.

The study of pesticide residue is of great importance. It will avail more information on dangers in terms of toxicity and other health implications associated with a certain pesticide. Our environment also needs to be protected from degradation and more knowledge on pesticide will ensure more precautions are carried out when dealing with the pesticides.

Research strategy
My research strategy will be based on use of references from previous studies done by various people and organizations especially those which have a world scope.

The second research strategy would be use of goggle scholar to include what different scholars have discovered about this issue. The reason I will use scholar information is that they have great knowledge as far as human health, chemistry and chemical composition of different compounds used as pesticide is concerned.

Critical Literature Analysis
Denis H. and Stephen C 2004, Pesticides Residues in Food and Drinking Water
Human Exposure and Risks, John Willey  Sons ltd.

These writers postulate that pesticide encompasses fungicides, acaricides, nematicides, molluscicides, rodenticides and herbicides. According to these writers, pesticide residue in food usually occur as a result of direct application to crop and  farm animals  as well as post harvest treatments on food such as grains in an effort to prevent pests attack. Farm animals which feed from treated crops can also pass on pesticide residue to human beings who feed on products from these animals. This means that consumption of products such as meat, eggs and milk can be a cause of pesticide residue contamination.

The other way in which pesticide residuals can pass to human is through pesticide contaminated environment. Spray drift can pass to a person. Water run off from areas which has been contaminated with pesticides carries pesticide residue. When human and other animals consume this water then they take in the pesticide residue content in the water. This work also give an example of organochlorine pesticide which is believed in the past, when it had not been banned, must have lead to many health complication to human and animals. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) had greatly degraded our environment. This pesticide has high environmental persistence and a high solubility. This make its residual to occur in milk, eggs and meat.

This work is of great importance to this study. First in explain what pesticides include. This explains to the reader the scope as far as the meaning of pesticide is concerned. The explanation of how pesticide residue can be passed from various contaminated sources to humans and animals is given. The work also gives an example of a pesticide (DDT) which had contaminated the environment as well as humans and animals before it was banned.

Elizabeth C, Jeffrey H, Ann, Thomas P, Carolyne R, William W. and Kenneth W 2001, Pesticide Regulations Desk book, Environmental Law Institute, USA.

According to this work, there are various ways through which pesticide reaches food and animal feed. Pesticide may be applied in the field or in the harvest crops which can be eaten by people or animals.  Human may also be reached by pesticide after consuming products which are derived from pesticide consuming animals. Products from the processors who intentionally apply insecticides, fumigants or other pesticides for food preservation and protection from pests can also be another source of pesticide residue contamination to humans and animals. The pesticidal chemical can easily migrate from the container or processing equipment to the food.

The work farther suggests that the way forward is not to ban food processing but to emphasize on regulations of maximum level of pesticide content in food as well as animal feed. The maximum level of pesticide content should have a negligible risk to the consumer.  Another measures suggested in this work is the use of additional label to warn the end user, use of precaution and protective clothing requirements as well as registration cancellation to those manufacturers who do not adhere to the maximum residual limits. Producers should be required to produce products which are safe. Safe here means that reasonable certainty that aggregate exposure to the pesticide chemical content will cause no harm.

This work is greatly important to pesticide residue study. Various ways through which pesticide can reach human and animal either directly or indirectly are explained. It reveals that human beings should care about what they consume, where the product comes from and the history of the product. The study also comes up with some solution to ensure acceptable residue standards which are safe for human consumption.  It brings out the fact that pesticide residue in various products cannot wholly be ruled out.

FAO 2004, Pesticide Residue in Food, FAO paper 178.

This work has postulated that, pesticide residue contamination in human and animals has been characterized by various symptoms. These includes increased organ weight, altered serum calcium and phosphate concentration as well as regenerative hyperplasia. These signs are manifested in case of kidney intoxication. Liver toxicity is manifested by increased serum cholesterol, induced activity of metabolizing enzymes, cirrhosis, hepatocyte hypertrophy, regenerative hyperphasia and fibrosis or sclerosis. The work also gives an example of pesticide residue called propineb which is usually metabolized into propylenethiouea that form part of residue.  This residual is then changed to carbon disulphide. Propineb affect the nervous system and the thyroid. The work also suggests that the physical and chemical characteristic of a chemical should be well known to the user.

This report suggests various ways through which the implications of pesticide residue can be measured. Various body malfunctioning can be a sign pesticide residual contamination. In studying pesticide residue implications on human and animal body it will be worthy to know some of symptoms resulting from exposure to the pesticide.

FAOWHO 1998, Food Standards Program, Volume 2, FAO Publication

The work urges the enforcement of maximum residual limits (MRL). The work describes M.R.Ls as the acceptable pesticide residue in a product that will result to no harm when the product is   consumed in long term. Any product based on M.R.Ls should be safe for human and animal consumption. It should also be friendly to the environment. This means that they are toxicologically acceptable.

This work is relevant to this topic. The issue of MRLs cannot be left out when studying pesticides residue. Since we need pesticides in our day to day life then MRLs can be used to govern the pesticide production and use.

Hill R, Head S., Baker S., Gregg M., Shealy D., Bailey S., Williams C., Sampson E. and Needham L1995, Pesticide Residues in Urine of Adults Living in the United States ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 71, 99-108 , Retrieved  March 4, 2010

The work postulates that, in a study taken in US, chlorpyrifos exposure was discovered to be increasing. The report suggested that pentachlorophenol exposure is frequent but its exposure had been decreasing. The study was carried by measuring 12 analytes in urine of 1000 adults in US. This acted as reference range concentrations for pesticide residues. Using the reference range concentrations it was possible to get information about exposure to pesticide.

This information is important in the study of pesticide residue. Determination of exposure to various pesticides and frequency of exposure is of great importance to this research. The paper also covers a report on practical experiment that had been carried on. This will certainly reveal the real situation on the ground and lead to discovery of new information concerning pesticide residue.

Edwards C 1970, Persistent Pesticides in the Environment, CSA Illumina, Retrieved March4, 2010

Edwards work covers the issue of the data available in the topic of pesticide residue. He argues that the current data only covers the present situation but lacks to explore the change likely to occur if some actions are taken e.g. a ban on a particular pesticide. How the pesticide residue cycle in the environment has been covered.

This work has marked the gaps that need to be filled as far as this pesticide residue study is concerned. The implication of a ban to a particular pesticide need to be studied and should be one step towards thorough research in finding ways of fighting pesticide contamination to human beings and animals.

Conclusion
The study of pesticide residue should be intensified.  New knowledge will help is saving human and animals life as well as ensuring good environment free of pollution from pesticide.

Data about the implications of banning a particular pesticide need also to be made available.

Environmental Protection Agency

There are various agencies which are set all over the world to check in to national pollution by formulating control standards. The agency which is involved with issues pertaining pollution in United States is the Environmental Protection Agency. This agency was introduced to check in to the loopholes of the environmental laws. Richard Nixon was the one oversaw the establishment of this agency in 1970 (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2010). The agency began its work immediately after establishment. Some of the activities performed by this agency immediately after formation include DDT usage ban and lead removal from fuels. These were achieved in 1972 and 1973 respectively. Other activities include increasing fuel efficiency and setting health standards. The health standards passed by the agency touched on drinking water which is essential for life. In 1975 this agency introduced regulation of fuel efficiency. The Agency was mandated at reducing air pollution in United States atmospheres. Reduction of air pollution was effected between 1970 and 1990. Standards concerned with pollution improved after the establishment of this agency. Amongst the areas which recorded significant changes are waste disposal and water quality. Through superfund, Environmental Protection Agency organizes for clean up exercises on waste sites.  This agency is independent since it is not regulated by the federal (IESC, 2010).

This agency was formed by bringing together various environmental regulating activities which were formed by earlier existing agencies. The single agency had to partake various functions which were effected through various departments. The departments involved include that of, Agriculture, Interior, Education and welfare and the department concerned with health. This agency is concerned with safety of Americans by eliminating health hazards. This agency has stimulated various goals. Some of the goals include pollution reduction, prevention of pollution, clean water and air, reduction of environmental risks, waste site restoration, management of water amongst other activities touching on pollution. Other goals include safe food and control of international pollution (The Baltimore Sun, 2010). This agency also participates in enlightening the public on pollution and its consequences. Some of these goals address the environment which is immediate to the people. Clean water and air, pollution prevention, risks reduction and safe touch on the immediate environment. Other goals are educative goals mandated at reducing environmental risks. These goals include law compliance, reduction of international pollution, water management, pollution deterrents and other goals which are directed on environmental risks.  There are principles which are adopted by this agency.

To aid in establishment of priorities and management, Environment Protection Agency adopts several principles. The laid guidelines help in pollution prevention, reduction of environment risks, focusing on health of children, maximization of public participation and working in partnership with Indian tribes.  It is the mandate of this agency to provide educational programs to the public. This agency also participates in enforcement of some state laws touching on environment protection. Some of these laws include Cosmetic Act, Water Act, Clean Air Act, Pollution Prevention Act, Endangered Species Act and the Federal Insecticide Act. It is also involved in enforcing laws concerned with toxic substances and pollution (EPA Victoria, 2010).  Environmental Protection Agency has witnessed a lot of success since it was established.

The standards formulated by this agency on air quality have been implemented in several parts in the large cities, decline of lead in children, reduction in emissions. Swimming and fishing can be carried out in the waterways safely. Standards of disposal of waste water have been implemented in many industries.  Dumping in ocean has ceased due to the standards laid down by this agency (Mesothelioma.com, 2010). Research has been carried out to identify safe pesticides. Reduction of toxic substances has been possible through the standards formulated.

Pollution has reduced substantially with standards laid down by this agency. It is possible to swim and fish safely in the Americans rivers. Citizens enjoy clean air in the urban which used to be a pollution zone because of emissions from industries. Dumping has been reduced due to recycling of industrial products and households. Recycling is very essential to industrial products since it eliminates unnecessary dumping which may be health hazard. Production of toxic chemicals has also reduced substantially. Despite of the efforts made by this agency, some problems persists (The New York Times, 2010). Other problems develop from the laid guidelines. Some of these problems include loss of water catchments, climate change due to global warming. These problems have developed as result of human activities such as settlements.

Human health and the ecosystem are the two parameters which defines the roles of Environment Protection Agency. Barren lakes have been witnessed over the recent past due to acidic rains which occur as a result of introduction of toxic substances in the atmosphere. This has caused various effects to humans including morbidity and mortality. Other impacts include ecosystem alteration which affects the species in the ecosystem including humans (CalEPA, 2010).

In conclusion, Environmental protection Agency was established in 1970 to help eliminate environmental risks introduced by humans. This was achieved by formulating standards and enforcement of environmental laws. Some of the environmental laws enforced by this agency include Clean Air Act, Endangered Species Act and Clean Water Act.
The number of children who die before they reach the age of five years is markedly high amounting to about 11 million globally. The figures have not reduced sufficiently despite the efforts of governments and international bodies to address this Millennium Development Goal 4. Worse still is that the main causes of these deaths can be reduced considering that they result primarily from preventable infectious diseases (WHO, para 2). These include diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria and measles among others. Bearing in mind that the deadline for implementation of the (MDGs) has less than five years to be reached, it is a moment to reflect on child mortality and act to reduce it to the targeted level or even lower.

This paper asserts the need to reduce child mortality to at least the MDG target level. Crucial statistics on child mortality
According to Unicef (a) (para 2), there are 29,000 children below the age of 5 who die every day globally primarily from preventable causes. Neonatal deaths are the highest amounting to an estimated 37 percent. Some of these neonatal causes include asphyxia during birth, congenital anomalies, tetanus, pre-term births, and severe infections such as pneumonia as well as diarrhea. Pneumonia is the second global cause of child death making up to 19 percent while diarrhea related deaths make up 17 percent. Malaria is also a serious cause of maternal death as it constitutes 8 percent of the deaths followed by measles which takes 4 percent of the mortalities. A relatively lower but significant cause is HIVAIDS which contributes 3 percent of the deaths (Unicef (b), p 1).

The developing world more so sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia are the worst hit by child mortality. Close to 99 percent of child deaths are for instance found in these two regions in addition to some other middle-income nations. The number of children who die within the first month after birth is significantly high reaching up to 4 million (WHO, para 2). As of 2004, sub-Saharan Africa was leading in the number of child deaths with a high of 46 percent. Following closely was South Asia with 32 percent child mortality. East Asiapacific was third with 10 percent whereas child mortality in Middle EastNorth Africa stood at 5 percent. Child death rate in Baltic States and the larger Europe was as low as 2 percent with the least cases of child death being in Canada, the United States and Latin America with 1 percent death rate. It is worrying that by 2015, the 60 countries with highest child mortality will not have hit the MDG 4 mark.

There has been efforts from various bodies and individual countries to reduce child death especially under-five mortality. While some countries especially the developed ones have been able to meet the MDG 4 target, others are far from it. This is especially in the developing countries. According to The World Bank Group (p 9), there were 37 countries having child mortality rate above 100 per 1000 deaths with sub-Saharan Africa countries having a mortality rate greater than 150 in 1000. It is a big contrast that while 1 in 14 children die before they reach the age of five years in developing countries, there is 1 in 142 children who die in high-income countries. Since this is a global effort, success must be ensured in all the countries. This implies that those that have been able to reduce child mortality significantly must not rest until every other nation hits the mark. The call to reduce child mortality should be taken seriously seeing that 2015 may come without having accomplished this.

Among the contributors to the accomplishment of the MDG 14 which has its subsections include the UNICEF, International Labor Organization, and the World Health Organization.

Reducing child mortality
By targeting on each cause of child mortality, it is possible to come up with a solution of reducing child death. This should be the focus of every country whether poor or rich. In any case, most causes of child mortality are due to easily preventable sources which may not necessarily require a lot of resources.

To arise to the call of reducing child mortality, it is important that initially the health of the mothers be catered for since their well being greatly determines the childs well being. For instance, if efforts would be made to reduce maternal HIV infections, and enlightenment of HIV positive mothers on how to handle their children, mother to child transmission of HIV would be greatly reduced. As of 2006, it was estimated that 2.3 million children aged below 15 years in sub-Saharan Africa were living with HIV (DFID, para 9). Most of these children were infected by their mothers either before or after birth. There are a large number of neonatal deaths occurring due to malnourishment of the mothers. There are also a significant number of children who die during delivery due to inappropriate maternal care. DFID (para 6) notes that more than half of all child deaths occur in underweight children which is due to malnutrition.

It is worrying that a disease such as measles that can be easily prevented through immunization is still claiming many lives of children. By maikng sure that children are immunized from diseases such as measles at an age before 5 years, it becomes easier for the child to survive to maturity (Unicef, para 12). It is appreciable that there have been measles vaccination campaigns globally and especially in the stricken developing countries. Nevertheless, the fact that the coverage is still a bit far from 100 percent coverage calls for increased efforts. Immunization programs against other diseases such as polio should be given more weight. Children who are facing malnourishment need to be supplied with essential nutrients through the efforts of governments as well as international donors. Essential vitamins like vitamin A which boosts immunity should be supplemented in the childs diet to help the child fight illnesses and infections (DFID, para 4).

Of course the first step to reduce child mortality should start with individual governments before calling for international support. All governments should seek to strengthen their health care systems such that public health will be guaranteed. For instance, there are up to 3,900 children who die daily out of lack of safe drinking water and poor sanitation. (DFID, para 3). If the individual governments would allocate more resources on public health initiatives like providing access to safe drinking water, water borne disease like diarrhea would be reduced. Lack of proper sanitation such as failure to wash hands with soap before eating also adds up to the causes of child death. The responsibility again falls in the hands of the government to provide public awareness on the need to wash hands.

Noting that the well being of the mother is a great determinant on the survival of the child, it is also the role of individual governments to ensure that the affairs of women are catered for. For instance, the labor unions should have regulations that are not discriminative to women. Such would include ensuring high incomers to mothers which empowers them to take good care of their families. Mothers should be given enough maternity leaves to ensure that their health and that of their children is safeguarded thus lowering maternal death. The ILO (para 7) also recognizes that workplace hazards result to death of close to 22,000 children every year. As such, it advises that very little children should not be brought into work places.

Empowering women and girls through ensuring that they receive good education is a big step towards reducing child mortality. It is noted that child mortality in cases where mothers have received at least secondary education is much lower compared to cases where mothers have not gone to school or just primary education only (ILO, para 2). An educated mother is able to understand how to avoid most of the communicable diseases that kill most children as well as understand the need for proper maternal and child nutrition. In addition, such a woman can be able to secure a better paying job thus advancing the well being of her family.

Efforts to reduce infectious diseases such as malaria should be increased by governments, international organizations and scientists. It has been well known that use of insecticide treated bed nets is very effective in preventing malaria which kills many young children in sub-Saharan Africa (The World Bank Group, para 2). In this case, governments and donors should put more efforts in making the nets available to all pregnant mothers and children below four years of age. Since there are medications for malaria, no child should be left to die but instead these should be made available to them with the least or no cost. Diseases such as malaria have no vaccine yet. The benefits of developing a vaccine are great as it would be the best preventive measure. This is a wake up call for the scientific community to take part in reducing child mortality by developing a vaccine.

Rich countries that have been able to meet the MDG 4 goal should also channel their support to those countries that are far from the mark. They should at least take the initiative since reducing child mortality is a global initiative which requires global efforts.

Conclusion
Child mortality is a serious challenge globally more so in developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Despite the efforts of reducing it based on Millennium Development Goal 4, the problem is still significant. It is unfortunate that most causes of child death are from preventable causes such as asthma and malnutrition. It is therefore the responsibility of individuals, governments, and international communities to intervene in realizing the Millennium Development Goal 4 before its deadline is reached.