Toxic hazards and risk assessment

Section one Toxic Chemical Threat
Toxic chemicals are present all around us. The impacts that they have on humans depends upon, among other factors, the duration and dose they are administered. We cannot prevent usage of these chemicals altogether since they are vital ingredients to many of our possessions.

One such chemical which is present in small amounts in our environment is Benzene. Its threat level can be assessed from the fact that its traces have been located in at least 1,000 of the 1,684 current or former NPL (National Priorities List) sites. It is a component of gasoline and chemical formulae C6H6.

Sources of Benzene exposure
The main sources of benzene exposure are cigarette smoke, industrial emissions and exhaust from motor vehicles. If this was not enough, it is also present in house hold items such as adhesives, detergents, paints, furniture wax etc. thus we cannot avoid cannot avoid contact no matter how hard we try. It is ranked amongst top 20 most produced chemicals in United States according to volume. The worst part about being exposed to benzene is that one might not even know it, as it is colorless and has a sweet aromatic odor.

National Institutes of Health is of view that the chief source of exposure for an estimated 50 million smokers is the smoke from their cigarettes that they inhale,  50 percent of toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2007) agrees with this and elaborates that an average smoker (32 cigarettes per day) takes in about 1.8 milligrams (mg) of benzene per day.
Section two Consumer exposure and vulnerability factors

Consequences of exposure
There may be severe consequences of exposure depending upon the period of exposure as well as the dose administered. According to eco-usa Brief exposure (5-10 minutes) to very high levels of benzene in air (10,000-20,000 ppm) can result in death. Lower levels (700-3,000 ppm) can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. In most cases, people will stop feeling these effects when they are no longer exposed and begin to breathe fresh air.

Ingestion of benzene may cause vomiting, irritation of stomach, loss of appetite and tachycardia. If comes in contact with skin can cause irritation, redness and sores. Eye contact can cause irritation, blurred vision and in extreme circumstances it can damage cornea.

If exposed to low levels of benzene for longer period, can also create problems and can prove to be a chronic threat. Benzene attacks on the bone marrow and affects the tissues that form blood cells. It can result in prevention of formation of important components of blood. If shortage of red blood cells occurs, due to this, it leads to anemia. While shortage of white blood cells causes leucopenia and shortage of platelets causesthrombocytopenia. Benzene is a known carcinogen. It causes a specific type of leukemia known as acute myeloid leukemia (AML). This is caused as benzene attacks bone marrow and interferes with production of normal blood cells.

Who is at threat
Virtually every one is at threat from benzene as it is present all around us not only in the form of house hold items ( the precise effect of these are unknown) we use but also as passive smokers (Active smokers, though, are at a greater risk as they consume 10 times more benzene) and exhaust from motor vehicles. However, workers working with benzene or products made from benzene are at a greater risk. As many as 238,000 people may be occupationally exposed to benzene in the United States.

Remedial actions
There is no antidote available for benzene so treatment is mainly supportive and symptomatic. Immediate removal of the patient from exposure, administration of oxygen, and monitoring and treatment of cardiopulmonary status are the first considerations. Removal of contaminated clothing is to be ascertained. In cases of ingestion, respiratory distress may indicate pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2000).In case of contact with skin, it is to be washed with soap and copious water. For eyes rinse with running water until irritation ceases time it will take for irritation to cease, again, depends upon exposure. All these steps are to taken immediately it would be preferable to carry these out in a hospital setting. If not immediately possible than contact a doctor as soon as possible. Effectiveness of remedies depends upon the condition of the patient and period for which the patient is exposed to benzene, again, as in most cases effects of benzene wear off.

Chemical Interactions
Benzene easily breaks of, consequently readily interacts with other chemicals. It readily reacts when exposed to chlorine, nitric acid, sulphuric acid etc. It is used to make other chemicals and compounds which in turns helps in manufacture of rubber, dyes and many things, as mentioned above.
Different results may be obtained when benzene interacts with other toxic chemicals. For instance when Cadmium and benzene interact mineralomimetic cadmium cyanide benzene clathrate is obtained Bis (benzene) chromium an organomettalic compound is produced when chromium (III) chloride, aluminum, and benzene react.

Section three Risk Assessment of the Threat
As discussed earlier, virtually everyone is at threat from benzene and consequences of exposure vary from mild irritation to death. For someone who is constantly exposed to benzene, for example an employee working 8 hours a day in a factory where benzene is used, it will be highly surprising if Heshe does not suffer from leukemia or anemia. Even if safety measures are followed it is more than likely that the will have symptoms of mild exposure to benzene at one time or other. Like wise heavy smokers can have leukemia due to constant exposure to benzene.

Conclusion
During 1900s when it was discovered that benzene is a toxic chemical it was replaced with substitutes and where it was difficult to do so limits were set as to the permissible quantities of benzene. Limits were also set for permissible levels of benzene in work environments. Given the increasing number cases of leukemia and anemia, exposure to benzene being their suspected cause it is high time that the standards need to be revised and  benzene levels in the atmosphere needs to be controlled.
The feature article A safe operating space for humanity is an introduction to the concept of scheming of our planets environment so as to maintain the so called Holocene period wherein the environment remained stable despite human interference. It is apparent that the so called environmental stability is under threat due to Industrial revolution over the years and a new era termed as Anthroprocene is now determining the global environmental changes. The Earth system could be or is already outside the Holocene state with calamitous consequences for most of the world

The author of the article Johan  Rockstrm ( Stockholm Resilience Centre) and his associates have proposed a framework for maintaining the Holocene state based on what he has termed as Planetary Boundaries these are considered as safe operating space for human race with reference to our Earth system which are associated with certain biophysical subsystems or processes. The so called subsystems have threshold values which when crossed could be disastrous for humanity.
The author further states that they have identified nine processes which in their view are important in their approach to define planetary boundaries. These nine processes include climate change, rate of biodiversity loss, interference with nitrogen and phosphorous cycle, ozone depletion, ocean acidification, global freshwater use, change in land use, chemical pollution and atmospheric aerosol loading.  According to them boundaries may be at a safe distance from threshold if they could provide the evidence for the same or they may be at dangerous level where such evidence is missing. Further for the effective quantification of planetary boundaries they have taken conservative approach due to reservations surrounding the actual position of the thresholds.

Based on their analysis the authors believe the three processes climate change, rate of biodiversity loss and nitrogen cycle has already broken their boundaries and how these could affect the earth system is demonstrated using the above three processes.

The central concept on climate change is to maintain pre-industrial rise in temperature. The climate boundary is based on two critical thresholds (i) atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and radiative forcing. Although the authors concur that there could be a rise of 3 C and this could lead to increase in other environmental disasters leading to still higher rise in temperature up to 6C. Secondly in the past carbon dioxide concentration was reason enough for maintenance of the polar ice caps. Thirdly evidence is mounting that some of the earth systems are moving outside Holocene period. It also appears that there is acceleration in the rate of biodiversity loss again due to human interference. The estimate of the loss is in fact at preliminary level. The manufacture of chemical fertilizer is one activity that is responsible for upsetting the nitrogen cycle since as much as 120 million tons of N2 from atmosphere is converted in reactive form which pollutes leading to eroding the earth system. The author concludes that there are gaps in the knowledge which needs to fill.

William H. Schlesinger argues that the concept of the managing the environment based on threshold appears to be a simple concept however if one waits until the damage is done
would amount to facing undesirable consequences.

According to Steve Bass the suggestion of   Rockstrm for setting a boundary of 15 per cent land use appears to dilutethe proposal of planetary boundary instead he suggests the boundary should set against soil degradation and soil loss.

The importance of the climate change implies that the atmosphere should be considered as an exhaustible resource as put forth by Myles Allen. It appears this concept does not fall in the purview of the planetary boundaries concept and as a result there is no need to contemplate as to how climate system would behave in future.

The novel concept of planetary boundary is emphasized by Mario J. Molin and he advocates the proposal should be followed by complexities of the various boundaries which could highlight the importance of reaching the thresholds of the earth-system processes. He cites the example how ozone depletion was tackled before transgressing the boundary.

One of the supporters of the concept is David Molden. The key element in the planetary boundary is the numerical values. The concept is a scientific approach that requires co-operative action on all fronts and essentially an important tool. However one needs to consider regional and local conditions which may often mask global values. In their experience on water management there are limitations at the physical level of human intervention into natural processes. He feels it is time to use the tool more effectively for consideration of planetary boundaries.

Peter Brewer appears to accept the aragonite-state at 3.44 to be quite reasonable however he cautions how these limits could be worked out. In other words a concrete plan to achieve environmental limits need to be worked out.

Cristin Samper considers the concept on three counts firstly biodiversity is more complex in terms of interaction of species and ecosystems.                                              

Secondly species extinction and global environmental changes are poorly understood. Finally single variable for biodiversity is not clear. He has suggested that biodiversity boundary should express species extinction as a probability.

In my opinion the novel concept of planetary boundaries represents a new tool in environmental studies which needs to be further authenticated by analysis of available evidence and filling important gaps in our understanding. As long as we do not transgress these boundaries we have the option of following our social and economic growth path.    

Comparisons and differences between Canada and China in the solid waste management

Solid waste management has become a big and important issue to many economies in the world. There is need to ensure a well-planned solid management strategy so that the problem of solid waste accumulation which can lead to more problems such as health problems and environmental degradation can be avoided. This paper seeks to examine the solid waste management in China and Canada

Introduction
Natural resources endowed to any country are of great importance for economic development. However, economic activities lead to degradation of some of these natural resources. Human activities in this case play most important roles. Day to day activities may lead to air, water or soil pollution. Many countries in the world are facing environment challenges, which are both from external and internal sources. Global warming, acid rains, air, soil and water pollution are some of problems being faced by many world economies. An increase in solid waste has also been a challenge to many economies. Strategies to manage this waste have been implemented in many countries but a lot more needs to be done. Purpose of this paper is to examine solid waste management in both China and Canada.

Objectives
This paper shall highlight importance of solid waste management. In addition to this, this paper will find out differences and similarities in solid waste management in two main countries, China and Canada. Solid waste management is not an easy task thereby there is a requirement for all countries to design policies that can ensure solid waste management in a controlled manner. Thereby this paper will highlight and suggest policies suitable for these countries.

Solid Waste Management in China
Scenarios in China
It has been observed that rapid growth of solid waste in China for the last two decades has caused rapid increase in environmental damage. In many Chinese rivers, 70 of the water is rated as severely polluted. A report from China National environmental Monitoring Center postulates that no major city in china has a good air quality. Ecological systems near Shanghai and other major cities are dangerously close to collapse.

Urban and rural areas of China have suffered severe environmental problems. Realizing these issues, higher authorities in China have tried to design policies that can help in decreasing or to control these environmental and ecological damages (News Agency, 2003). China has not been consistent in implementing environmental measures, which have been proposed over the years (Bemhard, 1995, p. 86-88). Many environmental issues faced by China include water, air, noise and soil pollution and it includes organic waste oil products, nitrates, sulphates cyanides, arsenic and heavy metals, mercury and cadmium, chromium and phenolic compounds. According to many reports, it has been seen that around 15 million tons of ash is annually emitted to Chinese rivers by coal-fired power industries.

Laws Related To Solid Waste Management
It has been observed in case of China that enforcement of environmental laws and apparatus have not been emphasized. Within citizens, higher authorities observe that environmental awareness is stumpy. This has led to more environmental problems. Many different kinds of policies have been designed that have not been taken seriously. There is an utter need to increase environmental awareness in citizens whether by increased advertisements or by utilizing media. Options that have been currently considered for solid waste management in China include landfills, which account for more than 70 of the total. Second option has been compositing and this option accounts for 20. Waste incineration plays a minor role. There has been increased recovery and recycling technologies as well as improved sanitary landfills. Main approaches to management of solid waste have been centralized on dumping and technology waste landfills.

Waste Recycling as an option
Waste recycling is usually done by waste collectors, either at the source or at the site where this waste is disposed. There are two kinds of compositing. One is known as high temperature compositing and the other is referred to as mechanical type. Solid waste incinerators are found in less than 10 municipal in China. Ministry of construction is responsible for management of solid waste on national levels. Environmental Sanitary Departments organizes management, transportation, and disposal of waste.

Solid Waste Management in Canada
According to OECD, contemporary environmental problems currently being faced in Canada include climate change, air and water pollution, wastewater collection and disposal of waste. Environmental protection is not explicitly integrated in countrys constitution. Federal and provincial authorities address only political and specific issues. Canadian government should integrate environmental concerns into its economic and sectoral decisions.

Waste treatment and disposal in Canada has usually been managed through municipal and regional governments (Paul, 2005). Canadian government has been a bit reluctant in promoting waste reduction and recycling and no comprehensive approach has been observed in this case (Barry, 1994, p. 152). Canadian federal government and provinces plays a great role in solid waste management. Federal government has a role of gathering and disseminating information, conducting research, developing national guidelines and demonstrating activities as far as waste disposal is concerned. Canadian Council of Resources and Environment Ministers are involved in the mechanisms that involve the waste management.

However much is being done as far as solid waste disposal is concerned. Industry for solid disposal in Canada is gradually becoming stable and strong. New landfills and incinerators are being constructed due to continued demand for quality dumpers, compactors, and other related products. Canada has the knowledge that significant gaps and inefficiencies exist in Canadian recycling, including some plastics and e-waste disposal is concerned.

Waste Disposal Industry and Economical Condition of a Country
Waste disposal industry is immune to economic conditions in many ways. In 2006, Canadians produced a total of 40 million tons of waste. Since 2004, waste has been increasing at a rate of 8. The construction of new land fills recycling and installation of incinerators have become more popular in waste disposal. Many provincial authorities have been favoring recycling and compositing initiatives as opposed to the approval of new facilities. Strategies to extend the life of existing infrastructures are being pursued by the provincial government.

Many cities in Canada as Vancouver and Toronto handle residential waste collection. Municipalities and private companies handle the residential waste recycling.  Regional districts are the ones involved in operation of land fills and incinerators. Nevertheless, in some areas incinerators and landfills are managed by the private companies.

Summary of Key Applicable Policies, Legislation, and Regulations
There is a need for an integrated solid waste management approach that will seek reduction of waste, recycling and reuse opportunities at different tenant companies and individual companies. Regulations such as taxations on pollutants and sale of pollutants permits should be used to reduce solid waste from the economic agents.

Regulatory Instruments
Ambient Environmental Quality
This will dictate analysis of highest allowable pollutants in ambient water or air.

Effluent standards
These regulations will entail establishment of legal ceiling of total quantity of pollution discharged from pollution source.

Similarities in Chinese and Canadian Waste Management Policies
There exist some similarities in case of Chinese and Canadian solid waste management.
Three main methods that are used in China and Canada for solid waste
management include landfills, incinerators and composites.

Landfills are waste disposal methods that carries biggest proportion of solid
waste. In China, landfills are means of waste disposal and these account for more than
70 of the total. Main approaches to management of solid waste have been centralized
on dumping and technology waste landfills.

There has been a rapid increase in solid waste which has necessitated
more efforts to manage solid waste. In Canada, new landfills and incinerators are being
constructed due to continued demand for quality dumpers, compactors, incinerators and
other related products (Cheryl and Amia, 2009). In China, there has been an increased
recovery and recycling technologies as well as improved sanitary landfills.

Private sector has also been involved in solid waste management. Private sector
has played some roles in conjunction with governmental authority as far as collection of solid waste, its transportation as well as disposal is concerned. In case of Canada, municipalities and private companies handle the residential waste recycling. Regional districts are involved in operation of land fills and incinerators. Nevertheless, in some areas the private companies manage incinerators and landfills (Cheryl and Amia, 2005). It has been realized that after China has turned into the worlds largest producer is municipal solid waste with a total turnover of 190 million tones of solid waste per year,

Chinese government has opened doors for business entities to be involved in solid waste
disposal since this has become a big problem.

In both countries, solid waste mass has become a crisis. Problem posed by solid
waste has become a major problem. It has reached crisis proportions. Since in modern society, waste has been increased by production of materials that are designed to be replaced thereby many cities in the country faces shortage of space in old landfills.

Differences in Chinese and Canadian Waste Management Policies
Canadian approach has been using voluntary approach. Voluntary approach towards solid waste management has been emphasized in Canada. In China, in case of solid waste management, government and municipalities have been key players. In China, it is the ministry of construction that organizes the management of solid waste in the national levels. The Environmental Sanitary Departments organizes the management, transportation, and disposal of waste. On the other hand, Environmental Protection Departments are involved in management of environmental pollution.

Effectiveness of Solid Waste Management Approaches in Canada And China
Solid waste management in Canada has gradually been improving towards successfully attaining acceptable standards where solid waste cannot be lethal to public health and environmental degradation. Solid waste disposal industry in Canada is stable and strong thereby solid waste management has been effective.

However, in China more efforts are needed. China is the world largest producer of solid waste and this has become a crisis thereby solid waste management has not been effective. China has not consistently implemented environmental measures that have been proposed over the years. However, intervention of private companies in solid waste management in China may soon lead to success in solid waste management.

Conclusion
Environmental issues being faced in China are often summarized as air, soil, and water pollution summing up to global warming. Solid waste leads to soil and water pollution. In Canada, the same environmental problems are being faced.  Solid waste management is indispensable in both Canada and China. An integrated approach towards management of solid waste should be emphasized in both Canada and China. Practices that will encourage reuse, recycling and compositing of solid waste should be encouraged.

In both countries, there is need for explicit integration of solid waste management in the government plans. incentives that will encourage more participation of private sector such as good payments and low corporate and income taxes to solid waste management business should be an option for these economies. On the other hand public awareness should be created as far as reuse, recycling and disposal of solid waste is concerned.

Farm Tours

MSU Dairy Farm

1.  What do they feed cows at the farm Why can cows digest things humans cannot
Aside from grass, cows are fed a scientifically formulated and balanced diet consisting of hay, grains, protein sources and other vitamins and minerals.  At times they are also given recycled ingredients such as citrus pulp, brewers mash and whole cottonseed.  Cows also consume a lot of water, up to as much as 25 to 50 gallons in a day.

Cows can digest things humans cannot because their digestive system is different from humans. Cows are ruminants and their stomachs are made in such a way that they can break down the cellulose content of what they eat.  Humans do not have the same kind of digestive system.

What are 3 environmental problems faced by a dairy operation such as this one, and how are they dealt with

Here are three possible environmental problems faced by a dairy operation
Nuisance  some locals feel that it is a nuisance to have a farm with livestock since it attracts flies and causes bad odor to the surrounding area.  Dairy farmers address this concern by always keeping their barns clean and having special manure storage facilities.  The diets of the cows are also specially formulated so that the manure produced will not have much odor.  Some farms even use air-filtration facilities to make sure that the air expelled from the barns are odor free.  Others use methane digesters to convert the manure into energy while also reducing odor.  

Ground Water Pollution  residents feel that dairy farms are a major contributor to the pollution of water sources which can possibly affect their health in the long run.  Dairy farmers assert that cow manure in their farms are properly handled to prevent runoffs.  Manure is either converted into energy or added to the soil as compost to create organic fertilizer.  Trees are also abundantly planted in the vicinity of the farm to act as natural buffers in controlling water runoffs to other areas, hence, areas outside the farm will be least affected if at all.

Air Pollution  other community locals think that livestock is responsible for chemicals in the atmosphere like ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen and other particulates.  As much as possible, dairy farmers practice recycling and environment-friendly systems to ensure that the quality of life is sustained and ecology is maintained.

How has changing the style of barn helped to reduce some of the environmental problems and made life more comfortable for the cows

The more recent style of barns allows more air to circulate, allows more space for the cows to move freely, gives the cows more comfortable areas to rest, and gives the farmer more waste management efficiency.  This means that there is a system being used to make the dairy farm more responsive to the needs of the farm cows as well as addressing problems of the environment.

Briefly describe the steps that bring milk from the cow to you.  Be sure to describe what pasteurization is.  (attach a separate sheet if necessary)

Milk is taken from the cow 2-3 times a day by a milking machine.  Milk comes from the cow at 100 degrees and is quickly cooled down to 40 degrees.  The milk flows from the cow to the cooled pipes to a refrigerated sanitary tank, which will be taken by a dairy truck to be brought to the dairy plant where it is pasteurized and bottled.  Pasteurization is a simple, effective method to kill harmful pathogens through heat treatment without affecting the taste or nutritional value of milk.  After being pasteurized, the milk is then bottled and sold to stores where consumers may now buy them.

Describe two examples of a waste material being converted to a resource at the dairy farm.

Manure in the dairy farm is converted into fertilizer by mixing it with the soil.  It can also be fed to methane digesters so they can be converted into energy or biofuel for use as electricity or for other purposes.

Water used for cleaning the barns can be recycled for use in farmland for irrigation purposes.

Human Population Lab  Part 1

Instructions

Sign up for a country India
Choose a country that you would be interested in studying in some detail.

Before Class
You will be researching basic demographic information about your country.  Here are some sites that might be useful

At this site use the InfoNation for comparisons of statistical data from many nations and Country At a Glance to view statistics on a specific country. There are many other useful sites which you can find by doing a web search of your particular country. You may need to gather information from a variety of sources.

Complete the following data chart for your country, and find the answers to the discussion questions. BRING YOUR DATA TO LAB.  This is a requirement for completion of the lab.  If you do not bring your completed chart to class, you will lose points for this lab.  Other students are counting on you to provide this information.In lab, you will work in groups to analyze your countrys statistics and compare them to other countries.  If we have time, you will also present the conclusions of your group to the class.

Human Population Lab, Country Data Worksheet     NameYour countryINDIADemographic DataPopulation in 2009 (or most recent available)1,156,897,766Area of your country in square kilometers (km2)3,287,263 sq kmPopulation Density as of 2001
(Number of humans per Square Kilometer)324Birth rate and death rateBR  21.72 births1,000 population

DR  7.6 deaths1,000 populationNet Migration
( means immigration, - means emigration)-0.05 migrant(s)1,000 populationPopulation projection to 20501,000,000,000Total Fertility Rate  (the number of children a woman will give birth to in her lifetime)2.68 children bornwomanLife expectancy (male and female)male 65.13 years
female 67.17 years

Infant mortality rate per 100050.78 deaths1,000 live birthsPopulation structure
(percents aged 0-14, 15-30, 31-40, 41-65, 65)0-14 years 30.5 (male 187,197,389female 165,285,592)
15-64 years 64.3 (male 384,131,994female 359,795,835)
65 years and over 5.2 (male 28,816,115female 31,670,841)

Economic DataGDP per capita (in U.S. dollars) 3,100 in 2009Poverty Rate 25Government education expenditure 3.2 of GDPAgricultural base

(self-sufficient vs. food importer) 165 billion (export) vs. 253.9 billion (import)Primary exports petroleum products, precious stones, machinery, iron and steel, chemicals, vehicles, apparel

SocialPolitical DataEducation policy (literacy rate,   kids in school, avg. grade completed, etc.)definition age 15 and over can read and write
total population 61
male 73.4
female 47.8

Major religions Hindu 80.5, Muslim 13.4, Christian 2.3, Sikh 1.9, other 1.8, unspecified 0.1Health Care (availability) 5 of the GDPStatus of women (social status, property ownership,  of girls in school, etc)Maternal mortality in India is the second highest in the world, estimated to be between 385-487 per 100,000 live births.  Women constitute 90 per cent of the total marginal workers of the country Cruelty to wives comprised 28 per cent of all crimes in 1996.Policy on population (status of family planning, legality of abortion, availability of contraception, etc.) Two-children per family policy increased abortions of female fetuses due to preference for male offsprings contraception is available.Form of government federal republicNatural ResourcesEnergy consumption 400 KWH per annum

Now the worlds 5th largest producer of wind powerCarbon dioxide emissions 1,510,351 thousands of metric tons or 5.3 of total globalWater resources Only 62.3 per cent of Indian households have access to safe waterEnvironmental challenges (pollution levels, desertification, erosion, etc)60 of the land suffers erosion unsanitary practices of eliminating waste causes water pollution vehicles cause 33 of the air pollution land pollution due to pesticides and fertilizers.
Be prepared to discuss the following

The consequences of your countrys present population status (Demographic, Social, and Economic factors listed above) on the future growth of your country, natural resources, and environmental quality.  How might an increasing population affect air and water quality, habitat loss, energy use, etc  If your country has a decreasing population size, will an increased standard of living have an effect on the environmental quality of your country

An increasing population will mean higher population density.  This will result to more competition for resources, and therefore will result to more air, water and land pollution, more habitat loss and energy use.  If population decreases, an increased standard of living will definitely uplift the quality of life of the present members of the population.  Most likely, they will enjoy better health and a more comfortable standard of life.

The consequences of your countrys population status globally.  For example, does population growth in your country have an effect on environmental quality in other countries or vice versa  If your country has zero or negative growth, what is your responsibility regarding the affairs of other countries

Yes it does because even if the population is only in one country, the consequences of the action of one person can make a big difference on a global scale.  If my country has a zero or negative growth, my responsibility towards the affairs of other countries is to assist them with their problem on overpopulation, or at least to help them to bring down their population growth.  This will assure future generations of the assisted country to have more employment opportunities, better wages, a lesser drive to migrate to other locations, and a better perspective of life as a whole.  

Your countrys population policy.  Your country may already have a population policy.  What is it  How has it been implemented  What results or consequences have been seen If your country does not currently have a policy, develop your own based on the particular needs of your country.  This should be a statement about the best means for maintaining population growth at a desirable level.

India already has a population policy in place, namely, the two-children per family policy which was implemented in the year 2000.  At present time, there are some states which follow the rule while there are others which do not.  Due to the failure of following through with this policy, India continues to be the 2nd most populous nation in the world.  The current situation is somehow related to lack of education on the part of women in the Northern part of India where there is a lower literacy rate.  The best possible recommendation would be to elect a leader who would propose a population reform, set the example,  and make sure to follow through with it until the desired population rate is achieved.

The Management of the Oil Spill Problem in Canada and Australia

The devastating effects of maritime oil pollution are often neglected in the media due to the remoteness of the events from major population centers. While major oil spills such as the Exxon Valdez off the Alaska coast in 1989 released nearly 11 million gallons of North Slope crude oil into the waters of south central Alaska, and more recently, the explosion of an oil rig in the Timor Sea between Australia and Indonesia have made headlines, it is often deliberate pollution by international cargo vessels which cause most damage to marine environments on a consistent basis. However, due to greater government and industry cooperation and awareness of the damage to fragile environmental systems by oil pollution, the total number and volume of tanker spills has significantly decreased since the 1970s.

Both Canada and Australia share many similarities in the dimension of their size, geographical diversity, history and political and legal systems. Not surprisingly, both countries have exhibited more similarities than differences in their approach to dealing with prevention, cleaning, and prosecution in the event of oil spills and pollution. Thus, this essay will explore the respective approaches of Canada and Australia to offshore oil pollution, demonstrating a common philosophical underpinning of the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) as well as the co-ordination between Federal and State Agencies, and the use of technology to detect and prevent oil pollution.

Canada possesses the world s longest coastline and largest freshwater reserves, together with busy commercial maritime channels. The two main sources of oil on the sea surface are shipping and offshore oil activity. Every year, more than 300,000 birds are killed off the coast of the island of Newfoundland alone. The table below demonstrates the vulnerabilities of Canada s maritime bird life on its east and west coasts to international freighter traffic. The potential economic impact of an oil spill involves not only wild fisheries and fish processing but also aquaculture industries as well as tourism.

Transport Canada is the lead federal agency which coordinates the Marine Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Regime. The regime was established in 1995 with the guiding principles of effective and responsive legislation where potential polluters pay for preparedness, reasonable response costs, industry-government partnership, comprehensive contingency plans, and mutual agreements with neighbors.

Transport Canada seeks to regulate maritime safety under the Canada Shipping Act and the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, as well as under international conventions such as the International Convention on the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) and the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation that aim to manage oil pollution. The Canadian Shipping Act provides for a framework of response organizations to oversee actions when an oil spill occurs. The Polluter Pays Principle is a feature of this legislation whereby oil handling facilities and ships both pay an annual fee to response organizations to maintain an adequate response level in the event of an oil spill. In the event of a spill, the polluter is to report the spill and appoint an on-scene commander. The response organization is then activated, then the Canadian coast guard monitors the response. However, this is contingent on the polluter willingly informing the authorities of such a spill. In case the polluter does not cooperate with the governmental authorities, the Canadian Coast Guard must become the on-scene commander. Currently, employed technology which aims to detect oil spills using radar technology is prone to much interference, and equipment that measures relative slick thickness requires further development.

Australia is the worlds largest island and home to many fragile maritime ecosystems. Research has shown the long term impact of oil spills on the increased seedling mortality and leaf defoliation in intertidal areas, from the heavy oil fuel spilled into the port of Gladstone in Queensland Australia in January 2006. More recently, on August 21, 2009, an accident at the Montara offshore drilling operation led to a 25,000 square km oil slick spreading across the ocean and spilling into Indonesian waters, consequently threatening marine reserves of the Ashmore and Cartier reefs. This environmental catastrophe highlighted Australia s vulnerability to such oil spills and its governmental framework to deal with the pursuant environmental and economic damage.

Australia has a  National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil and other Noxious and Hazardous Substances  by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA, 2008). It is the AMSA which coordinates the National Plan with other federal agencies, state governments, and industry groups. AMSA operates under national legislation, the Australian Maritime Safety Authority Act 1990. The National Plan has an elaborate division of powers between the national agency and the state governments. For example, within three nautical miles off the coast, it is the state government (through a sub-committee) which is responsible for the execution of the National Plan while the area beyond the three nautical mile limit is managed by AMSA. This division becomes even more complicated in the case of the oil drifting back ashore from beyond the three nautical mile designation, in which case responsibilities are shared between the Federal and State agencies. One key feature of the federalstate division of powers is the Port State Control program which enforces inspections of ships in order to ensure compliance with pollution and safety requirements (Watkinson, 2000). The Australian government has also developed a fixed wing dispersal spraying capability, capable of spraying dispersant on an oil spill within a specified time. The National Plan is further supported by the National Maritime Emergency Response Arrangements in which emergency towage vessels are located strategically on the Australia s coasts and a maritime emergency response division commander acts on behalf of AMSA during a shipping accident. As in Canada, Australia follows the polluter pays principle, and a levy is imposed on commercial ships sailing through Australian ports. However, both Federal and State governments also fund the national plan.

The Canadian and Australian approaches to oil pollution exhibit key similarities. Most notably, peak national government departments oversee the implementation of national legislation. In the case of Canada, Transport Canada works within the ambit of the Canada Shipping Act 2001 to prevent oil pollution and manage spills if they occur, although in Australia, the AMSA was created by the AMSA Act 1990. Both countries have adopted the polluter pays principle by levying a tax upon the shipping and oil industry. Furthermore, both nations attempt to use technology to detect offshore oil pollution. However, while Transport Canada is less encumbered by state and sub federal regulatory authorities in its operations, the AMSA has a more complex division of powers with its state governments and their departments which could lead to paralysis at times of emergency.

Although it is the major oil spills which receive media attention such as the Atlas oil disaster in the Timor Sea and the Exxon Valdez oil spill off the Alaskan Coast, daily pollution from commercial ships goes largely unnoticed. While both Transport Canada and the AMSA employ technology such as satellites and helicopters to detect offloading of oil and other waste from ships, both of their detection of enforcement of laws remains weak. Moreover, the polluter pays principle is of limited use when the polluter cannot be traced, does not volunteer information on pollution, or even evades the authorities. This pollution happens on a daily basis but it is the environment and the tax payer who pays. Ultimately, even an accurate estimation of the cost of cleaning oil pollution is difficult, and there is a lack of consensus on the most effective methods of cleaning an oil spill (Shahriari, 2008 ).

The Canadian authorities have been criticized for their uneven implementation of the relevant legislation. Although Transport Canada has pursued polluters with fines, the subsequently formed Newfoundland Offshore Petroleum Board has been less rigorous in prosecuting or fining. Furthermore, the Canadian authorities have been criticized for their under estimation of oil spill frequency predictions. While more rigorous litigation and better forecasting could be pursued in Canada, in Australia, AMSA largely reacted well to the Atlas disaster in the Timor Sea in the months after the explosion in late 2009. However in both cases, greater international coordination could be developed. In the case of the Atlas oil rig disaster in the Timor Sea, the disaster while within the ambit of the Australian Maritime Safety Authority also affected Indonesia, and the oil rig which caused the pollution was owned by a Thai company.  Thus, better coordination between the Australian and Indonesian authorities could have limited the affects of the oil spill on the people and environment of the area. Even though the Australian Maritime Authority was praised for its response, it can be seen that the oil spill was not controlled in a timely manner.

The road ahead for both Canada and Australia lies in strengthening international cooperation with neighboring countries in order to combat major environmental catastrophes which move rapidly beyond boundaries. It is due to lack of international coordination that oil drilling companies and international freight ships in many cases pollute but do not pay, or pay only for a fraction of their pollution. When Australia better cooperates with Indonesia and Canada with its neighbors, the polluter pays principle, which both counties have adopted, will become a reality. Greater international cooperation can make use of dynamic environmental risk modeling by directing efforts toward ships and areas that have been identified as high risk prior to a potential accident (Eide, 2007). Such risk modeling would require sharing of data between nations. However, both countries having such vast maritime boundaries will always struggle to accurately detect pollution, and only the most obvious cases which come to the media s attention will be likely to be pursued.

Canada and Australia share many similarities and very few differences in their approach to offshore oil pollution. Both nations have empowered a federal agency to oversee implementation of national legislation with some amount of devolution to state agencies. Both Canada and Australia have also adopted the polluter pays principle, although the implementation of such a principle remains uneven. A key difference between the two is the more fragmented approach of the Australian system, with division of powers and funding between the federal and state governments. Both nations need to increase the use of technology to detect offshore pollution and bolster prosecution of offenders. Both countries can also increase cooperation with regional neighbors to better enforce laws and lower response times in the event of major oil spills.  The recent case of the West Atlas oil rig disaster in the Timor Sea and the continued devastation of Canada s maritime bird life demonstrate that the approaches of both nations require further refinement to clean up the coast lines of both nations.

UN Polluted water killing more people than war

Water pollution is the contamination of water with impurities, disease germs or foreign bodies.  Water pollution in most cases occurs during water harvesting, water conveyance or even storage.  If rain water is tapped effectively, conveyed in the correct channels and stored in clean storage media, then it is safe for consumption because it has low content of mineral impurities.  Surface water water from rivers, lakes and canals may be contaminated through flowing on contaminated surfaces for example on contaminated soils.  It may also be as a result of disposal of sewage on the water ways or it sometimes constructing sewers on soils that low retention capacity thus resulting in seepage of waste waters in to the surface water. Some industries dispose their waste fertilizer and harmful chemicals into rivers without treating it and this contaminates the water. In the case of underground water, it needs occasional treatment because it may be contaminated through seepage of waste in to the well.  Covered well can supply quality water for a long period of time.

Millions of people in the developing countries die of water pollution.  Sewers burst and the waste water drains in to the water sources or the there are leakages that enhance the mixture of clean water with the waste water leading to the growth of microbe that cause diseases like typhoid, dysentery, cholera among others that are fatal to human life.

In the United Nations reports reveal that water pollution is the cause of many health problems to the people the report is devastating because it states that water pollution claims more live than the physical fights, war or any violence.  The report further states that about 2 billion tons of waste water gets discharged daily into the water sources.  It is rather very alarming the majority of the sick people in the wards are suffering from water born diseases.  The report confirms that the world losses more than 3.7 of the sick population as a result of water related sickness.

The world is encouraged to check their death rate through the management of health related factors like clean water provision and high medical care.  However, it may proof difficult in some nations because of the economic crisis coupled with energy shortage.  To obtain one liter of clean drinking water, the processing factory needs at least three liters of the ordinary water and this consumes a lot of energy to process.  This does not scare the developed countries like the United Kingdom and the European countries because they can allocate good finances on health management.

Even though water pollution is all over the place, there is need to train the locals on how to carry on with individual health care by either boiling drinking water or even ensuring that they are using and clean vessels for water storage.  The governments should also form strategic plans that will help control water pollution.  In fact, the UNEP advices that if the world is to have any surviving being by the year 2050 there should be a collective responsibility on the worldwide control of environmental pollution.  This will help eradicate the enlarging dead zones in the seas and oceans all over the world.

In conclusion, water pollution and all other sorts of pollution to the environment should be tamed as fast as possible.  If this does not happen more lives would be lost and the people may end up getting extinct like the dinosaurs.

Hybrid Cars Incentives

Vehicles which use more than one distinct power sources to move them are referred to as hybrid vehicles (Jill, 2008). They are powered with gas and have electrical motor assist. The electrical motor assist has rechargeable nickel-metal hydride battery pack (Haber, 2008). Sources of power for hybrid vehicle include Diesel or Petrol fuel, Hydrogen, wind, electricity, outboard or on-board rechargeable energy  storage system, compressed air, compressed or liquefied natural gas, solar, wood, coal, electromagnetic fields, radio waves, human powered, and waste heat from internal combustibles(Ricky, 2006). Examples of hybrid cars include Toyota Prius (4845), Honda Civic Hybrid (4045), Nissan Alima Hybrid (3533), Ford Escape Hybrid (3431) Mercury Mariner Hybrid (3431) Toyota Camry Hybrid (3334) Toyota Highlander Hybrid (2725), Chevy Malibu Hybrid (2634), Saturn Aura Hybrid (2634) and Mazda Tribute Hybrid (3431).

Why use hybrid cars
Hybrid cars have several advantages for both the economy and the environment at large. Use of hybrid cars results in fuel conservation in situations like full stop, low speedinitial acceleration from a stop, heavy acceleration, highway driving, braking, coasting and deceleration and backing up. At full stop the hybrid car is propelled by electric motor as the gas engine is shut off (Brown, 2009). In towns where there is heavy traffic on the roads, where cars stop several times, this saves large amounts of fuel. Thus, hybrid vehicles are ideal for driving on busy city streets (Jill, 2008). During initial acceleration and at a speed below 40MPH, the hybrid car is propelled by the electric motor (Hawkins, 2009). This saves on fuel consumption though such low speed is unrealistic. During heavy acceleration, the hybrid car is usually powered by both the high torque electric motor and the gas engine typically through some type of power splitting device (Bonnie, 2009).  Though not much fuel is saved during such acceleration, but none the less there is some advantages in fuel consumption as opposed to conventional cars. Some hybrids use a smaller, more efficient gasoline engine hence get slightly better highway mileage than the non-hybrid cars because the hybrid have continuously variable transmissions that allows the engine to operate at optimal RPM and the electric motor can assist for passing (Rodney, 2009). When the hybrid car is braking gently or coasting, the forward kinetic energy that gets dissipated as heat is converted to electric energy (Haber, 2008). This electric energy charges the battery pack (regenerative braking) (Hawkins, 2009). This process saves on fuel consumption by the car since the energy saved will be used at some stage to propel the car. In hybrid cars going in reverse, the gas engine do not operate, instead the electric motor propels the car hence saving on some fuel consumed (Jill, 2008). This is known as backing up. The hybrid cars starts automatically when the battery gets low and proceeds to charge the battery - a hybrid never needs to be plugged into an outlet (Hawkins, 2009).The fact that the electrical battery pack is automatically recharged with regenerative braking is advantageous toward fuel consumption.

Hybrid cars offer many environmental advantages as well. When the car is being propelled by electrical motor system, the environmental pollution is reduced by the reduced tailpipe emissions (Brown, 2009). Even a tiny increase in fuel economy makes a large difference in emissions over the life of the car (Bonnie, 2009). A larger difference is made in large cities where pollution is high. This is because very little harmful sulfur or carbon emissions are produced during low speed city driving and the inevitable traffic jams (Haber, 2008). It is estimated that a hybrid car cuts emissions by 25 to 35 over even the most fuel efficient gas powered models (Hawkins, 2009). Both the nickel metal hydride and lithium ion batteries which are used in hybrid cars are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of car batteries today(Rodney, 2009).

Use of hybrid cars is much economical. First, hybrid car systems come with 8 year warranties (Jill, 2008). Unlike conventional cars which have short time warranties, this is economical in terms of repairs. Secondly, people who buy hybrid cars also get tax deductionscredits for Clean Fuel Property(Ricky, 2006). Third, oil consumption can drop considerably, if enough people drive hybrids responsibly (Rodney, 2009). This can cause OPEC to reduce fuel prices, which can result in some saving by the government.

of hybrid cars
Hybrid cars are more expensive than cars which use conventional fuels, even among cars produced by the same manufacturer (Haber, 2008). It can take years to recover the additional costs incurred in buying a hybrid vehicle through gas saving. These high prices make ownership of hybrid cars to be limited to few individuals. The differences in prices for hybrid cars reflects the fact that much of the technology was newly developed during the early part of the 21st Century, while the mechanical elements of the gas engine cars have long since been amortized -- or paid for by years of manufacture and use(Philip, 2006). Thus, the prices of hybrid vehicles are expected to decline with time.
The proficiency to attain high speed is also checked in most cases. The battery life and the cost for the battery change is considered to be an inevitable con associated with the hybrid car. The security factors raised due to the light weight body is also a risk for hybrid cars.

Attaining the claimed EPA fuel economy estimates for hybrid cars or conventional gas cars for that matter may be hard (Philip, 2006).  This is because the EPA fuel economy estimates do not reflect real driving conditions, since they (estimates) assume slower than normal highway driving and slow acceleration on level roads.

Hybrid cars are heavier than non-hybrid cars. This is because hybrid cars have both an electric battery in addition to conventional gasoline engine which provides supplemental power to the car (Hawkins, 2009). Importation of raw materials and assembling of components from long distances is often required in the manufacture of hybrid cars which makes cost of production to be high (Philip, 2006). However, the future hybrids will likely be lighter. For instance, the adoption of lithium-ion batteries is expected to reduce the overall weight of the vehicle and to improve fuel economy with a consequent reduction in carbon (VI) oxide emissions (Philip, 2006).

The major question among the disadvantages of hybrid cars is the practical viability of the energy efficiency of hybrid cars (Rasta, 2008). As the popularity of hybrid cars and electric cars increases, the demand on the power grid is likely to increase (Haber, 2008). However, this is not always the case. Thus, the reduction in carbon emissions by hybrid and electric cars would be largely cancelled out because of their dependence on recharging from coal-powered plants (Haber, 2008).

Disposal of spent batteries used by hybrid cars is a major environmental problem. Thus, more research to develop less toxic battery packs for electric and hybrid cars are required (Philip, 2006). Nickel-based batteries, which are commonly used in hybrid cars, are known to be carcinogenic, and have been shown to cause a variety of cancerous effects (Philip, 2006).Thus there is need to carry out more research and subsequent use of lithium-ion batteries which are appealing because of their highest energy density and their production of a higher voltage than that of nickel-metal hydride battery cell.

In most hybrid cars, the proficiency to attain high speed is checked in most cases (Rasta, 2008). For people who value time this could be a drawback to such technology. Thus there is need to develop hybrid cars which can move faster but which still posses environmental and economic advantages.
There are security issues which are raised due to the light materials which are used in the construction of the hybrid cars (Haber, 2008). In addition, in case of an accident, there is exposure to high voltage wires, which can result in electric shock. This means that few people will be willing to risk there lives driving such vehicles. Thus, there is need to build hybrid cars which are heavier (without increasing harmful sulfur or carbon emission or increasing fuel consumption) for the security purposes of the drivers.

Hybrid cars have a complicated system (combination of electric motor and the gasoline engine) which requires experienced mechanics only to take care of it (Bonnie, 2009). Furthermore, it is very hard to find spare parts which may also be costly since very few people have such vehicles.

The need for incentives
Since very few people can afford to own the high priced hybrid vehicles, the ultimate goal of reducing emissions to the environment is not realized. Also, the economic importance of such vehicles is not achieved at national level hence there is little if any conservation of fuel. This means that there will be a continued over reliance on the petroleum products as a form of fuel hence the prices of fuel will continue to be raised by the oil producing countries. If buyers of hybrid vehicles are given incentives such as tax cuts and credits, then many people can own such hybrid cars with overall outcome of realization of the goal to conserve the environment and cut on expenditure on petroleum product. Incentives toward research in the improvement of the hybrid cars can result in reduced cost of production which can then lead to reduced prices. Such tax cuts and credits could be in the form of a fuel economy amount that is based on the cars fuel consumption and a conservation credit that is based on the estimated lifetime fuel savings of the vehicle (Stephen, F. and Sandra B. 2008). Therefore, the government needs to invest much in research if any of the advantages associated with the use of hybrid cars will be realized. Giving manufacturers tax cuts in the promotion of the hybrid vehicles will translate into reduction of prices. This will encourage more people to own these cars and in the long run the economical and environmental advantages will be realized.

Conclusion
Since the hybrid cars are associated with less pollution and higher energy efficiency incentives for people who purchase hybrid cars need to be increased. If many people are able to use hybrid cars, dependence on fuel will drastically reduce and will result in cutting down of the fuel prices by oil producing countries. Incentives to users of hybrid cars could through government allowing tax credit and reductions for the promotion of the hybrid cars. The disadvantages of hybrid cars need to be used as motivators for government to provide more incentives towards the improvement of the hybrid cars.

How Viable is Sulphur Filters on Merchant Vessels

This applied dissertation will seek to explore the viability of the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels. Emphasis will be centred on fuel usage in these vessels given that it is the kind of fuel used that determines the magnitude of sulphur dioxide pollution. This means that the merchant vessels are major emitters of sulphur compounds into the atmosphere as compared to the other modes of transport. It is important to note that the shipping industry contributes a lot to air pollution and if not properly checked may cause major environmental damages. This paper addresses the factors that may lead to this heavy pollution by the merchant vessels and goes ahead to recommend means and ways of implementing cost-effective yet efficient systems including the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels. The research has adopted an investigative approach. The first part outlines the guidelines for conducting this investigation. Part two reviews literature on the topic and includes key recommendations on pollution reduction with emphasis being laid on the use of sulphur filters. The research is however not conclusive of the topic and future research may address issues not tackled in this paper.

Chapter 1 Introduction
Merchant Vessels are ships that transport cargo and passengers during times of peace. The use of merchant vessels can be traced to ancient times when the organization of constant traffic of very heavy products over long distances made it necessary to build specialised vessels with quite exceptional nautical characteristics, so as to ensure there was regular provision of supplies to different parts of the world. The use of merchant vessels optimised during the imperial period. The various categories of vessels included those vessels used for short and medium-length voyages, to very large merchant vessels (Boetto, 1990).

The prominence in the usage of merchant vessels during the ancient time was attributed to the need to move bulky as well as heavy products across very long distances. This was important given the low costs that were incurred in marine transport as compared to road transport that was considered slow, uncomfortable, and dangerous. The entire vessel navigation often lasted for several days as it solely depended on the movement of favourable winds. For example, it would take three days to travel from Ostia to Africa, six days to reach Alexandria through the strait of Messina, and eight days to cross the entire western Mediterranean from Gades to Ostia. Voyages could also be much longer, lasting up to three months for example crossing from Spain to Italy could take that long (Boetto, 1990).

Merchant vessels are responsible for the largest portion or marine pollution. This is particularly so given that the amount of emission generated by any given marine vessel is to a greater extent dependent on the weight of the vessel. The main pollutants from ship exhausts mainly consist of sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide. These substances are major ozone depleting substances that really need to be checked to reduce any further damage to the environment. It is thus important that a mechanism for exhaust gas cleaning system is developed that would have significant beneficial impact on the environment and on human life especially that of people living in port cities and the coastal communities (Marine Environment Protection Committee, 2008).

Efforts have since been made to see a progressive reduction in the volume of sulphur oxide that the merchant vessels emit into the atmosphere. According to the Marine Environment Protection Committee, there are limits applicable particularly within the Sulphur emission Control Areas. The volume of sulphur oxide that can be tolerated is to be reduced to 1.00 from the current 1.50 effective July 2010, and this would further be progressively reduced to 0.50 by the year 2015. Similar steps would also be applicable to the volume of nitrogen oxide that is emitted into the atmosphere (Marine Environment Protection Committee, 2008).

The need to control air pollution by the noxious gases from exhausts of ships resulted from the need for international cooperation towards combating acid rain. This followed from studies that indicated that air pollution could travel for several kilometres before pollutants are deposited and resultant damage occurs, particularly damages to crops and forests. Studies also indicate that most acid rain results from atmospheric deposits of sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides. These two pollutants mainly originate from coal and burning oil. Merchant vessel engines mainly use these two fuel sources and are therefore ship exhausts are main emitters of sulphur oxide into the atmosphere (Marine Environment Protection Committee, 2008).

During the 1990 Marine Environment Protection Committee Session, Norway which is a member of the Committee made submissions that indicated that the volume of sulphur emissions from merchant vessel exhausts were estimated at nearly 6.55 million tonnes annually, which is about 5 of the total global sulphur emissions. These emissions over the open sea areas are spread out with moderate effects. However, the emissions create major environmental problems on certain routes including the English Channel, South China Sea, and Strait of Malacca (Marine Environment Protection Committee, 2008).

It is on the basis of the need for environmental protection, especially protection against pollution that results from merchant vessels that arouse the need to examine the available techniques as well as develop new techniques for the reduction of emissions air pollutants. The consideration for the need, justification and possibility of controlling volatile organic compounds including sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides emitted by merchant vessels has since gained prominence and is a key concern to the entire shipping sector. It is a requirement by MARPOL 7378 that merchant vessels are fitted with certain pollution prevention equipment which includes oil filtering equipment, oil content meters, oilwater interface detectors, and sewage treatment plants (Marine Environment Protection Committee, 2008).

Thesis Statement
Merchant vessels play a very critical role in international cargo transport and thus a very critical part of global commerce. The vessels are very useful for the haulage of bulky cargo over long distances due to the convenience it has over other modes. One major aspect of this mode of transport is the duration of travel taken to transport cargo from one part of the world to another. There are voyages that last for as long as three months. The volume of emissions by merchant vessels are dependent on the size of vessel engine as well as the number of days travelled. Available facts indicate that the worlds largest merchant vessel engine is nearly 110,000 horsepower, which weighs about 2,300 tons.
It is further estimated that each merchant vessel would operate for 24 hours per day for about 280 days annually. There are nearly 90,000 ocean-going merchant vessels globally. The shipping sector contributes close to 10 of the global sulphur oxide pollution. Indeed, a single large ship can generate close to 5,000 tons of sulphur dioxide pollution per year. These statistics indicate the magnitude of damage caused by the merchant vessels. It is therefore important the stakeholders in the shipping sector take a lead in cleaning up emissions. Adopting the use of sulphur filters is one such strategy that should be explored on the merchant vessels.

1.1 Statement of the Problem
Merchant vessel pollution affects the lives of communities in coastal and inland regions around the world, yet pollution from such vessels remain one of the least regulated part of the global transportation system. Merchant vessels have been singled out to be contributing nearly 7 of the worlds sulphur emissions, and these figures are still on the increase, to an extent of threatening the gains so far made by cutting sulphur pollution from land. While the International Maritime Organization has already set new rules on sulphur pollution from ships, it is still being viewed by environmentalists that such measures are not strict enough. These new rules set an upper limit of 4.6 for the sulphur content of marine fuel oil in most waters.

Unless an initiative is aggressively pursued by all stakeholders in the shipping sector towards reducing to the minimum levels possible the volume of sulphur oxide emissions from merchant vessels, then a lot of damage both to the environment as well as human life will still be suffered. Several options exist for the reduction of the volume of pollution from merchant vessels. Some of the options including the building of new engines with low capacity and that can use diesel are being tried out but only to a limited extent. What remains a viable choice given the current state of affairs is to fit the exhausts with filtration devices that would ensure levels of sulphur emissions are significantly reduced.

1.2 Background of the Problem
The shipping sector plays a very critical and indeed the most important role in facilitating the global trade. This is because the largest portion of world trading cargo is transported through the ocean. Despite the crucial role that the shipping sector plays, it is also one of the leading contributors of air pollution in the entire transport sector.  Ship engines are powered either by coal or diesel fuels with produce significant volumes of chemical pollutants into the atmosphere. The main components of these chemical pollutants include sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide.

Merchant vessels are unique in the sense that their engines continue to run even when the vessels are in an idling condition. At such moments, the smokestacks continue to emit pollutants including sulphur oxides into the atmosphere. The shipping stakeholders have for long been concerned about the ways of reducing air pollution that results from ship emissions. Some of the approaches that have so far been explored include the plugging of merchant vessels into electrical outlets on shore and shutting off their polluting exhausts. This initiative however requires very large sums of money that may not be available to all the stakeholders.

Although the International Maritime Organisation is working on a regulation to limit the emission levels for both sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide from the engines installed on the marine vessels, only the countries that have so far ratified the agreement are bound by the limits. The responsibility is thus left upon the vessel owners to consider investing additional amount of money towards the upgrading of their vessel engines so as to reduce the emission of sulphur oxides into the atmosphere. This noble initiative is however too costly and only a few investors may have the requisite capital for such upgrading.

Though numerous efforts have been explored through legislation and vessel owners initiatives towards reducing the level of pollutant emissions, environmental groups still feel not much has been achieved so far. The option that thus remains feasible to vessel owners is to consider investing in pollution control devices capable of absorbing the noxious emissions. Filtration devices such as sulphur filters would play a significant role in the sense that vessel owners may continue to use the cheaper higher sulphur content fuels without violating the emission level standards (Orol, 2005).

1.3 Justification for the Study
Undertaking the study on the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels is a timely study given the efforts that the shipping stakeholders is placing on the substitution of less effective and very expensive filters with sulphur filters. The nature of merchant vessel voyages is such that journeys take considerably long duration yet numerous uncertainties also characterise such voyages. This means that the need for a reduction in the volume chemical pollutants during the voyages is very critical. For sustainability to be realised in effective sulphur oxide filtration, it is important not only to explore but also to encourage the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels. The shipping stakeholders should thus be fully encouraged to consider making a major shift from the use of other filters to sulphur filters.

1.4 Deficiencies in the Evidence
The choice for exhaust emission filtration is to a greater extent determined by the kind of equipments as well as the associated costs. The variations in the levels of technology would to a greater extent be the determining factor in the choice of the mode of filtration that one chooses to utilise. Though the use of sulphur filter is considered of substantial benefit with regard to human health safety, it comes with heavy initial investments and is limited in the magnitude of application. Subsequently, the decision on the type of filter to use may not necessarily depend on the human safety concerns but rather on the needs of any particular investment as well as the availability of resources. The evidence obtained for this study may thus be grossly compromised by the individual investor considerations within the shipping sector.

1.5 Definition of Terms
Sulphur filters Refer to equipments used for the breaking down of sulphur compounds from the exhaust pipes of engines.

Merchant Vessels Refers to ships that transport cargo and passengers.
Emissions These are gases and particles released into the air as by-products of a natural or man-made process. One of these processes is the burning of fuel to power vessel engines.

Pollution Refers to the undesirable state of the natural environment being contaminated with harmful substances as a consequence of human activities. Within the context of this research, pollution refers to the emission of sulphur compounds into the atmosphere from the exhausts of merchant vessels.
Pollutants Refers to the unwanted chemicals or other material found in the air, at high enough concentration to endanger the environment and peoples health.

1.6 Purpose of the Study
This study was based on the concept that the use of sulphur filters on marine vessels would significantly contribute to the reduction of sulphur oxide emission into the atmosphere from ship exhausts. The study was designed to
Assess the potentials that exist for the use of sulphur filters on merchant vessels.

Evaluate the benefits that are associated with the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels.
Examine the efforts by the International Maritime Organization towards promoting the use of ship pollution reduction systems.

Highlight the problems that are associated with sulphur oxide emissions into the atmosphere.
To come up with recommendations to the shipping sector stakeholders on the sustainable use of sulphur filters.

1.7 Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested in this study
H01 Most of the international cargo transportation is undertaken by merchant vessels.
HA1 Most of the international cargo transportation is not undertaken by merchant vessels.
H02 Merchant vessels emit a lot of sulphur oxide into the atmosphere.
HA2 Merchant vessels do not emit too much sulphur oxide into the atmosphere.
H03 The use of sulphur filters will significantly improve the environmental conservation measures.
HA3 The use of sulphur filters will not have any significant implication on environmental conservation measures.
H04 Use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels comes with very huge capital investment that most vessel investors cannot afford.
HA4 The costs associated with the use of sulphur filters are not out of reach of the vessel investors.

1.8 Implications for Environmental Conservation
This study may lead to significant reduction of pollution related issues particularly environmental degradation and emission of sulphur oxide to the atmosphere that have for long time been associated merchant vessel emissions. These changes could result to safe engine emissions in general not only on merchant vessels, but rather a significant achievement that can be copied to other transport sectors. The result of this study may also prompt the vessel investors to consider installing sulphur filters within their vessels as a way of achieving significant reduction in sulphur oxide related pollution. Governments will also be prompted to intensify both legislation and campaigns towards the reduction of sulphur oxide pollution.

1.9 Summary
The use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels would be a very good step in the right direction in terms of environmental conservation through reduction of sulphur oxide emissions to the atmosphere. It will also be very useful to vessel investors given the significant reduction in pollution related costs that are likely to be achieved as a result of the use of sulphur filters. The study has been designed to examine the alternative types of engine pollutant filters that can be used in merchant vessels. Chapter 2 is a detailed literature review on issues that relate to the use of sulphur filters. Special emphasis has however been laid on merchant vessels. Chapter 3 outlines data collection and treatment. Chapter 4 presents the study findings while chapter 5 is a discussion of the findings.

Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Overview Air Pollution from Ships.
Merchant vessels have for long been credited for the very significant role that they play in facilitating international trade. Indeed, transportation of freight by ship is considered an environmental mode of transportation. For a very long time, scientist have not been able to single out what may be the consequence of the exhaust fumes from the ships to the environment. This is despite the fact the emissions from ships is the leading form of emission in the entire transport sector. This has since necessitated the need for steps to be taken towards fixing of this problem just has been done to road transport and air transport (Innovations Report, 2004).

Air pollution from ships has proved to be worse that has always been thought. This is even worse within the very high traffic areas where the exhaust emissions may produce effects on the climate just as much or even more than the other forms of emissions. Ship emissions introduce into the atmosphere as much quantities of sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide as the combined inland sources of emissions. This has particularly led to the formation of ground-level ozone and acidification of shores. Shipping is currently being seen as a large burden to the environment as one of the biggest air polluters in the world (Innovations Report, 2004).

The emissions from merchant vessels, tankers, and other vessels have turned out to be a complicated mixture of dangerous gases which are being introduced into the atmosphere. The fuels that are mainly being used by the ships known as bunker oil contain very large concentrations of nitrogen and sulphur. The emission of this cocktail of gases into the atmosphere is very hazardous to health, agriculture and vegetation. The sulphates which are found in acid rain have very gross effects on the climate. Scientists have estimated the increase in ground-level ozone to be nearly 100 while the acidification of the coastal areas to have increased by 10 as a result of ship emissions (Innovations Report, 2004).

These estimates according to the experts have been based on the sale of ship fuel and the engine consumption. Experts however contends that estimating the actual levels of emissions from the ships may not be very easy since it is spread all over the world. Failure to come up with accurate calculations of pollutant levels from ships is seen as a major setback to environmental conservation. This is particularly so given that the effects to the environment are considerable. Regulations regarding pollution from ships has also not been very strict enough and is not even included in the Kyoto Protocol. The International Maritime Organisation has since realised this setback and has put up a strong advocacy that would see more countries ratify a new international convention aimed at reducing emissions from ships (Innovations Report, 2004).

2.2 Sulphur Content of Fuels
It is highly considered that sulphur dioxide emissions from ship engines are directly proportional to the sulphur content of the fuel used. This has often meant that the most effective way of curbing the problem of sulphur dioxide pollution is to use fuel oils with low sulphur content. Fuel with regard to shipping sectors is normally put into two main categories the heavy bunker fuel oil - which is highly viscous and with high sulphur content, and the light marine distillate  which is less viscous and has low sulphur content. Large vessels such as the merchant vessels normally utilise the heavy bunker fuel oils, though they occasionally switch to lighter fuels for their auxiliary engines (The European Environmental Bureau, 2004).

The sulphur content of the heavy bunker fuel oil is approximately 2.80. Though this high sulphur fuel oil is cheaper compared to the light marine distillate, it comes with the problems of high maintenance costs including engine lubrication and higher risks of operating problems. The lower price of the heavy bunker fuel oil has tended to draw majority of merchant vessel investors to rely on it despite the numerous environmental problems that its use poses. There is the other option of desulphurization of oil. This option is however very expensive and requires investment in refinery desulphurization which is far out of reach of the vessel investors (The European Environmental Bureau, 2004).

2.3 Reducing Sulphur Dioxide Emissions from Merchant Vessels
Several measures are being explored to ensure that the risks of sulphur dioxide emission from ships are significantly reduced. It is further estimated that the cost of reducing such emissions may be between 300 and 600 euro per ton. Legislative measures that have so far been implemented on land equally cost much and in some cases more that that on ships. The switch from high sulphur to low sulphur fuel oils would on average cost below 450 euro per ton sulphur dioxide removed. The costs that are associated with retrofitting flue-gas desulphurization to the current coal-fired large combustion engine may vary a lot and is dependent on the specific engine.

A key strategy that is being explored includes voluntary initiative both on the part of the international bunker industry and the vessel investors. The international bunker industry is being urged to ensure the availability of significant quantities of marine heavy fuel oil whose sulphur content does not exceed 1.5. Port authorities are also being urged to provide incentives that would encourage ships to use land-based electricity or clean onboard power while in the port. The voluntary initiative that is available to vessel investors involves the use of sulphur filters that would facilitate the breaking down of sulphur dioxide into other compounds which are less harmful to the environment.

2.4 Sulphur Filters on Merchant Vessels
One of the most acceptable cost-effective ways of reducing sulphur dioxide emission into the atmosphere as compared to regulations requiring the use of low sulphur fuels is the use of sulphur filters. These filters have the benefit of saving the vessel investors millions in dollars and are also capable of reducing the emissions by close to 80. The use of these devices is supported by the MARPOL Annex VI which allows vessels in the Sulphur Emission Control Areas to use an on-board exhaust gas cleaning system or any other technological mode of reducing the emission of sulphur dioxide from both auxiliary and main propulsion engines to 6.1g sulphur dioxide  kWh or even less.

Given the ever increasing costs associated with fuel switching, more and more vessel investors are considering the installation of sulphur filters that would enable them to continue using the less expensive high bunker oil but with significant reduction in the levels of sulphur emission. It is evident that the fleet average marginal cost of sulphur dioxide reduction when sulphur filters are used as compared to policy that prescribe fuel switching would significantly reduce. The overall savings for the whole fleet can be as much as 250 million on an annual basis with sulphur dioxide emission reduction of nearly 85 when the sulphur filters are used.

Given that the use of low-sulphur fuel is not a mandatory requirement for the reduction of other pollutants, which can be easily reduced using selective catalytic reaction systems, the use of filtration devices is most ideal. Vessels would still be able to use the heavy fuel oil while applying the after-treatment technologies that would significantly reduce sulphur emissions without compromising their capabilities for controlling other pollutants. The use of sulphur filters would thus serve as a transition mechanism of reducing sulphur emission from merchant vessels in a very timely and the most cost-effective manner before all vessel owners are legislatively compelled to switch to low-sulphur fuels (Wang et al., 2007).

Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
In research undertaking the methodology section is one of the crucial areas to be tackled in a proposal document. This is due to the fact that it forms the basis of the results of research findings. A research can be faced with big challenges due to a wrong choice of the method to be used. To avoid this, good planning of the method is essential and more in order to get reliable results. The issue of reliability establishes that a research should have the ability to show consistency in the results even after a study is done by different researchers repeatedly. Reliability in research study can also be enhanced through good structure of the methodology. When the correct data collection methods are used, proportional samples are collected and the correct method of analysis is used in a research can achieve validity.

Since this research is of an inductive nature, it prompted the application of a qualitative methodology. That means that the views of the marine fuel experts have been given a lot of weight. This was done by administering both physical and online questionnaires as well as conducting in-depth interviews each lasting nearly 45 minutes. Those interviewed had to be marine engine fuel experts and merchant vessel investors who have been in the sector for at least the last five years, and at the time of the interview were actively engaged in the business, as well as voyage crew in the sector who have served at varied positions. This ensured very rich data was gathered from persons with a wealth of experience.

3.2 Data Collection Methods
The key purpose of data collection was to ensure a rich set of description was obtained. To achieve this, the interviews were transcribed in real time by the interviewer. The responses were then reduced and analyzed by adopting principles of data codification and clustering (Miles et al, 1994). This was supplemented by administration of questionnaires as well as comprehensive review of relevant literature.

3.3 Sources
The data gathered for this research is from a wide range of documentary sources relating to use of sulphur filters in general as well as those specifically relating to the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels. These mainly included policy documents, academic and the non-academic documents. First, journals on sulphur filters were searched. Second, electronic databases were searched using key words like sulphur filters, merchant vessels Air pollution, and exhaust fume filtration. Third, government website for marine transport including Ministry of transport website was searched. Literature review included both conceptual and empirical works with about 30 articles reviewed for this study.

3.4 Interviews
The interviews dwelt on the following areas
Air pollution by merchant vessels.
The relationship between the engine fuel type and the volume of sulphur dioxide emission into the atmosphere.
The means of strengthening the use of sulphur filters on merchant vessels and how to help vessel crew utilize sulphur filters in their facilities.
What the future hold for the utilization of sulphur filter in the merchant vessels.

3.5 Questionnaires
A questionnaire survey of the shipping sector was conducted to understand the aspects of sulphur filter usage within the merchant vessels. The survey was explanatory in nature as the objective was to gain insight of the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels. The questionnaire was administered to nearly 200 shipping investors and over 100 engine emission experts. The set sent to the investors included a cover letter detailing explanation on the purpose and need for the study, the questionnaire document and a pre-paid reply envelope. Letters reminding the respondents of the questionnaires were later sent to those who had not responded within the three weeks duration.

3.6 Case study
This research involves classical use of case studies to gain a deeper insight through the application of a set of ideas. A multiple case study approach helps in developing a theory which is better grounded, more accurate and more generalized (Eisenhardt et al, 2007). Case studies are introduced to test the practical effectiveness of the use of sulphur filters, and the users adoption and of one over the other. The use of case study is important in practical testing of theories with practitioners in real life situation. The case study organizations are selected based on the idea of theoretical sampling. This is because when it comes to building of a theory, theoretical sampling tends to be preferred as compared to generalized concept found in statistical studies. This means that the cases are chosen for theoretical and not for statistical reasons (Schroeder et al., 2008). An analysis has been developed on how the use of sulphur filters is steadily gaining popularity amongst investors in shipping, and particularly the merchant vessels.

3.7 Survey Analysis
From the nearly 200 questionnaires that were mailed to the shipping investors, 175 were returned. This represented an 85 response to the questionnaires. However, those that contained usable data were only 150, thus a satisfactory response rate can be said to have been reasonably attained. From the 100 questionnaires administered to engine emission experts, 80 were duly completed and handed over. From these about 80 contained usable data representing nearly 80 response rate which can be considered satisfactory.

Chart 1
3.8 Treatment of data
In research the data collected need to be synthesized in order to make sense in regard to what is being studied. The data from the questionnaires in this research was analyzed extensively (Zikmund 2003, p. 1-745) to retrieve the information contained in them. The triangulation method for data analysis and interpretation was used to interpret the data collected basing arguments on grounded theory (Dick 2000 Knafl  Breitmayer 1991). In addition the information obtained from the case study was analyzed individually and thereafter a comparison was made between the different data sources.

3.9 Research Limitations
The main limitation that may be pointed out in this research is the use of a single case study. But it is also true that the use of sulphur filters is still a recent concept that has not gained much popularity among shipping investors. At the same time, the single case approach has weight in he sense that it allows or very deep analysis to be achieved. Some of the information has also not been validated through multiple case analyses so as to provide a solid and practical basis for understanding the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels.

3.10 Rigor, Validity, Reliability, and Ethics
The four categories of quality management in research will be highly considered. This include validity, reliability, ethics and rigor (Zikmund 2003). Reliability of a research is its ability to have consistence in results. This will be done on controlling the sample by stratifying the population to get a more representative sample. Validity is the ability of a scale to measure what it is intended to measure but not going beyond the topic of the study. The triangulation method will be used to control this aspect in research. Ethics involves adherence to the norms accepted in gathering of information. This will be ensured by providing secrecy on the information collected from the investors. The rigor of the research will be directed towards efficient sample size in a critical facet in any investigation. The main purpose a researcher will utilize a sample is to reduce the charges and collect important data faster (Zikmund, 2003).

3.11 Human Rights Protection
The people who will be interviewed will be assured of their confidentiality. In addition, the information that will be gathered will be assured of the peoples privacy. The investors and the investments will have their rights protected.

3.12 Research Schedule Timeline
This research will take a period of eight weeks. This is considered ideal timeframe given the busy schedule of some of the business owners who will be interviewed and have granted appointments at later dates. A detailed summary of the work plan for the research has been tabulated below
Table 1 Work Plan

Week 1Research proposalWeek 2Preliminary literature review searchWeek 3Literature review and writingWeek 4interviewsWeek 5Case study collectionWeek 6Interview editing, coding and interpretationWeek 7Report interpretationWeek 8Report writing and presentation

Chapter 4 Results
The investigation on the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels sought to obtain the views of merchant investors in the shipping industry which is the main sector with very limited regulations regarding environmental pollution. The views of engine emission experts were also sought on a comparative assessment as well as the sustainability of the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels. The sample size included 200 subjects in the shipping industry and 100 engine emission experts. The key survey question focused on the reduction or sulphur oxide emission into the atmosphere, suitability of the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels, comparative costs of other ways of reducing engine pollution, and the environmental cost implication of the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels.

According to the research findings, merchant vessels play a key role in the entire world trade transport which translates into heavy engine emissions. The results indicate that the shipping sector currently contributes up to 70 of the transport sector sulphur emissions. The road sector contributed 20 of the sulphur emissions while 10 was contributed by other transport sectors.
                                                             
Chart 2
The key areas of sea transport sector included merchant vessels, power boats, and tourist ships. Merchant vessels were the single biggest contributor of sulphur oxide emissions within the sea transport sector given the heavy loads that they carry and the longer travel duration they take. Tourist ships were the second biggest contributor of sulphur emissions given the high speed of such ships. Power boats were the least contributor within the sea transport sector. The results indicated that merchant vessels contributed 55 of sulphur oxide emissions tourist ships contributed 38 while power boats contributed 10. The other sea vessels contributed the remaining 2 of the sulphur oxide emissions.

Research findings indicated that the main source fuel used in merchant vessels is diesel. Indeed, the use of diesel to power merchant vessels accounted for up to 52 of the fuel sources. Use of coal was also common in steam vessels and accounted for 30 of the fuels sources. Electricity was selectively used especially when the vessels docked for loading and offloading. Electricity thus accounted for 10 as a source of energy. Other fuels including gasoline accounted for only 8 of fuel sources in merchant vessels.

Chart 3
These findings indicate that diesel is the main fuel used in merchant vessels and yet diesel combustion is the main producer of sulphur oxides into the atmosphere. It is therefore evident that merchant vessels will continue to emit a lot of sulphur oxide into the atmosphere.

The research identified two main risks that are associated with the continued use of diesel as the main fuel in merchant vessels. Emission of sulphur oxide into the atmosphere was identified as the main hazard associated with diesel engines. Other dangers including spillage accounted for 30 of the environmental risks, while marine poisoning was considered for only 5 of such risks. The research identified atmospheric pollution as the main reason for the need to use systems that reduce emissions from engine exhaust of merchant vessels. This accounted for 68 of the reason for the need to fit pollutant filtration systems while fuel efficiency accounted for 33 of the reasons for the need of such filtration systems.

The research also sought views of engine emission experts on the viability of the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels. Research findings indicated that the experts were of the opinion that the use of sulphur filters was 72 viable, changing fuel type was 42 viable, engine upgrading was 25 viable while other measures such as electricity was only 15 viable.
                                                                       
Chart 4
A survey of the shipping sector indicated that carbon dioxide emission was the main environmental pollutant of the merchant vessels and accounting for 60 of the pollutants. Sulphur oxide accounted for 25 of the pollutions while nitrogen oxide accounted for 15 of the pollutants. The survey identified engine powering as the main use of fuel accounting for 52 of diesel use, lighting and refrigeration accounted for 40 of diesel fuel use while other uses accounted for 8.
                                                           
Chart 5
Research findings indicated that the high cost involved in engine upgrading was the main deterrent to the use of fuel efficient engines in merchant vessels. The other problems related to the reliability and sustainability of the use of various other forms of filtration devices in the merchant vessels. On the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels, high initial cost was identified as the main deterrent to its usage and accounted for 60 of the low usage. Reliability and sustainability concerns accounted for 30 of the deterrents to the use of sulphur filters.
                                                             
Chart 6
62 of those interviewed however agree that the use of sulphur filter is cheap in the long run while 30 were of the opinion that it would take very long time to recover the very high initial costs involved. 8 of those interviewed would not give their evaluation and preferred to use whatever was readily available.

When asked whether the International Maritime Organisation was doing enough to promote the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels, 60 of those interviewed were of the opinion that the campaigns by the International Maritime Organization have made significant achievement while 35 felt that the organisation should intensify its campaigns and legislation on this matter. 5 of the informants did not see any relationship between International Maritime Organization and the decision to use sulphur filters.

The views on the sustainability of the use of sulphur filters indicated that 72 of the experts expressed optimism that with relevant expertise, the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels can be sustained. 25 of the experts expressed concerns on sustainability given the large volumes of sulphur oxide emissions produced by the merchant vessels. 12 of the experts totally doubted the sustainability of the use of sulphur filters.

Research findings indicated that 80 of all those who were interviewed were of the opinion that the use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels had a future. 12 expressed doubts on the future of sulphur filter usage while 8 remained non-committal on the future the use of sulphur filters on merchant vessels.
                                                   
Chart 7
Chapter 5 Discussion
Merchant vessels play a very significant role in facilitating the movements of goods from one word trading region to another. It is thus a pertinent component of international trading that will continue to be in operation for several more years to come. The shipping sector is particularly important in the transportation of very heavy and bulky commodities which would otherwise be very expensive to transport through other modes of transport. Shipping is highly dependent on investment in marine vessels with varied characteristics ranging from small and fast vessels to very large and much slower merchant vessels. All these marine vessels rely on petroleum power for their engines and are indeed the biggest consumer of diesel fuel. It is on this basis that discussion on the viability of sulphur filters on marine vessels cannot be complete without due consideration being given to the fuel consumption characteristics of these merchant vessels.

Merchant vessels mainly rely on diesel fuels for their engines. The two main kinds of diesel fuels include the high bunker oil and the light marine distillate. The high bunker oil is the most commonly used diesel given its low cost and ready availability. This diesel is however characterised with very high sulphur content, and thus emits a lot of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. Marine light distillate is a refined form of diesel and is thus very expensive as compared to the heavy bunker oil. It is however very efficient and emits minimal quantities of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. The International Maritime Organisation is thus campaigning for more use of light marine distillate as compared to the heavy bunker oil.

The concern over the continued use of heavy bunker oil in merchant vessels relates the effects of high levels of sulphur dioxide pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by the vessels using this particular fuel. The shipping department is already being considered as the biggest contributor of sulphur pollutants into the environment. This problem has been compounded by the high number of merchant vessels that rely on heavy bunker oils as their main source of fuel. The increased usage of high sulphur oils will continue to pose major threats to the environment if not adequately checked through sulphur dioxide emission that will significantly increase the impact of global warming. The marine environment and the coastal regions bear the biggest brunt of the climate burden.

In order that the possible negative affects that related to sulphur dioxide emission into the atmosphere by the merchant vessels are avoided, it is important to explore the different ways and means that will offer alternative solution to sulphur oxide emission by merchant vessels into the atmosphere. The key areas that have drawn considerable interest include the use of sulphur filters, engine upgrading, and desulphurisation of oil. All these alternatives have the effect of significantly reducing the quantity of sulphur dioxide that is emitted by merchant vessels in to the atmosphere. These alternative approaches however come with varying costs that should be put into consideration by the shipping sector stakeholders and particularly the vessel investors.

The proponents of desulphurisation of oil argue that this approach is the most viable solution to the problem of sulphur emission by merchant vessel. Their argument is based on the premise that a total ban on the use of heavy bunker oil will ensure that all vessels rely on the light marine distillate and thus a total reduction in the quantities of sulphur dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. The equipments that are required for the desulphurisation of oil are however very expensive thus leading to very high cost of the low sulphur diesel. The majority of the vessel investors may not be very embracive of this approach given the additional overhead costs involved. At the same time, only upgraded vessel engines are capable of efficiently utilising this light marine distillate yet most of the merchant vessels do not have such upgraded engines.

The use of sulphur filters according to the proponents would help save the vessel investors a lot of costs that are associated with the use of light marine distillate and engine upgrading. Given the current legislative campaigns by the International Maritime Organisation for the setting up Sulphur Emission Control Areas all over the world as a measure of ensuring that the vessel investors comply to sulphur free policy, the use of sulphur filters become the most immediate and cost-effective solution to this problem. Relying on stiffer legislative measures may not be very easily achieved since not all countries are signatories to the sulphur reduction treaty. At the same time, oil with low sulphur levels is not readily available given the high costs involved in desulphurisation. This means that investment in the use of sulphur filters remain the best choice for use in merchant vessels.

Though the International Maritime Organisation has done a lot through campaigns to promote the use of low sulphur oil in merchant vessels, there are still feeling among the environmentalists that mere campaigns by the organisation are not sufficient. Instead, there are feelings that for any significant gain to be achieved in reducing sulphur dioxide pollution by merchant vessels resources should be specifically set aside and more funds invested in developing low-cost systems that are within the reach of vessel investors. It is on this basis of the potential benefits that the uses of low-cost systems such as sulphur filters pose over other approaches that this study aims at advocating for a major shift among vessel investors to the use of sulphur filters which are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide pollution by close to 80 and still have substantial cost-reduction benefits in the long run. The successful use of sulphur filters in merchant vessels should serve as a showcase that can be applied to other marine vessels all over the world.