Environmental Issues

Environmental sustainability and waste management is global issue because the world has had lots of contamination and there concern on the kind of environment the humans are surviving in.  It is a matter of concern to every discipline of study that includes designs of whatever kind building construction, engineering, as well as fisheries and manufacturing.  The global warming issue is affecting not only the designers but even farmers thus rising concern to every field of study.

Interior design is sometimes referred as the environmental design study area, or in other institutions called, the environmental sustainability design. The work of an interior designer is one that involves design works taking into consideration impacts on the environment to delineated negative environmental effects, through the manifestation of advanced skill and insightful technological design criterion (Gregory, 2002).

The fast growing world economies and technological advancements are calling for fully competent interior designers, who are fully sensitive to the environment, and focused to the provision of quality works that suit the desired standards of environmental sustainability. Waste management at any level of production is very vital because the mismanaged waste results to poor environment that may sometimes be harmful to even kill the aquatic life as well as cause disease to consumers of their products (Gregory, 2002).  It is therefore important for any design team to be organized and to meet at predetermined intervals during the design processes to make a successful coordination and come up with a comprehensive structure that if fully acceptable in terms of environmental sustainability and appropriate waste management priorities.

The design teams include the architectural engineers, the electrical engineers, cite engineers, interior designers, and the environmental management inspectorate body representatives among others in the category of design at initial set up of any building and construction.  The effort of this corporate body is to come up with environmentally friendly structures that accommodate different levels of advancements towards revival of biodiversity, ecosystem, and the exhausted natural resources.

The incorporation of sustainable design in any production premise gives an upper hand to the promotion of environmental degradation control.  This in most case involves, the management of various types of wastes. For example, post-user wastes, production wastes commonly called the bye products, printing materials, printed paper disposal, wastes as a result of transportation, and wastes due to raw materials not forgetting the material distribution.

All the mentioned wastes and their sources need be put into consideration when designs are being laid down and during implementation thorough inspection is required.  It is worth noting that there are wastes generated in every stage of production ranging from building, manufacturing, agricultural production and processing, transportation, commodity transformation and use as well as the disposal of the already manufactured product.  These wastes are therefore a challenge that should be countered through proper designs that promote the reduction of wastes at all levels of its generation.  For instance, redesign of plants that can reuse the wastes or coming up with new modes of synthesis of the wastes at low production cost.  The printing material can be recycled or the use of low ink consumer printing equipment and quality paper that has low waste generation is worth considering.

In conclusion, interior designers are key personalities that the world is looking up on to reduce global warming through appropriate designs that are environmental sensitive and best managers of wastes of various kinds.

Mediator between Developed and Developing Countries on the Issue of Global Climate Change
The ability of the planet Earth to reflect the radiation and heat it receives from the sun is severely damaged due to the excessive amount of greenhouse gases and pollution in the planets biosphere. The earths surface becomes warmer and climate conditions become extreme. It is an open secret that the Earth cannot anymore sufficiently sustain the needs of its inhabitants. Thanks to the effect of industrialization, commercialization, and globalization, that continuously drives the exploitation of natural resources and the environment the planets biodiversity is becoming steeper each day. The species of plants and animals gradually decrease as the human population explodes. The question is not about what humans can do to alleviate the effects or even to reverse the current condition. The problem is concerned with how governments could implement change. This is the basis for conducting international conventions about saving the planet involving several countries. Nonetheless, such gatherings are doomed to failure because each government pursue and protect its own interest. The recent Copenhagen Accord could be the best example.

The interest of developed countries like the United States, Japan, Australia and European countries, differ significantly from the interest of developing countries such as most of African and Asian countries. Primarily, developing countries would like to increase their economic growth through rapid industrialization. This could include turning agricultural lands and forests to commercial districts. It also involved producing more products and services, which could hasten the utilization of raw materials. The goal of developing countries is to become developed at the soonest possible time with the less possible cost. It is therefore impossible for developing countries to engage in the same measures that developed countries are willing to take to reduce global temperature and greenhouse gases. Jeff Tolefson from the Nature Magazine, mentioned that the disagreement in the Copenhagen Accord was caused by the goal set by developed countries regarding the 1.52 C limit on the global average temperature. The developed countries criticized China in their refusal to be open to external verification of its greenhouse gas emissions (Davey, 2009). The United States had refused to lower its green house emissions during the Kyoto Protocol (Pan-African News Wire). There is a wide belief among the developing countries that the developed countries owe a climate debt. Lumumba Stanislaus Di-Aping explained that it is the damage or the price on the damage that industrialized nation has caused the world (Pan-America News Wire). Di-Aping further assert that the developed countries are responsible for the current situation of the planet. He further argued that the developed countries possess the abilities, technology and know-how that can help the world (Pan-America News Wire).

The interest of developed countries is to protect its current economic state. It is a well-known fact that the successes of developed countries are achieved by sacrificing the environment. The United States, for instance, is considered as one of the most powerful nations of the civilized world. In conjunction, it is also the highest emitter of greenhouse gases. Thus, the United States had not been willing to compromise its economical success with the requirement and goals made in the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, after experiencing the effects of global warming and climate change, the United States is now becoming an active participant in restoring the environment and reducing greenhouse gases. In fact, in June 26, 2009 The Climate Bill was passed in the Lower House. Nevertheless, according to Erich Pica, from the Friends of Earth organization, this bill is insufficient in the reduction of global warming emissions in the United States particularly because the emission reduction targets are inadequate (Obama and Environmentalists Video). Moreover, Pica also argued that the Climate Bill remove the Environment Protection Agencys power to regulate greenhouse gases (Obama and Environmentalist Video). Picas final criticism concerns the Climate Bills reliant on Wall Street to reduce global warming problems.

As illustrated, both developing and developed countries are concerned about the stability of their economic development more than sustainable development. It might strike as a selfish behavior or motive, but it is how humans naturally act. Achbar and Abbott, in the documentary film The Corporation, illustrated how humans selfishly exploit his environment and other humans to work towards his favor. Consumers would purchase products without realizing what was required to produce such output. Entrepreneurs and business people are only concerned about how much money they are making. This same principle applies to governments.

In the documentary it was stipulated that the moneymaking world would only be concerned themselves with the environment if it could generate income. Indeed, this had been a very enlightening idea. The failure of the Copenhagen Accord was largely caused by Chinas refusal to maintain the temperature targets for 2020.

Underlying assumptions could be made through inductive reasoning. China is currently a booming nation. The sleeping giant is slowly showing its ability to become a global economic power. China is also known as the leader in producing solar panels. Nevertheless, Chinas energy depends on burning coals, which emits large amount of carbon dioxide. Thus, reducing greenhouse emission would rob or reduce Chinas energy source.

In the film Ecological Footprint, there are suggestions regarding the use of renewable energy as a practice towards sustainable development. Renewable energy implies the use of natural resources that could be replenished in a very short period of time. The most prominent renewable sources of energy are sunlight, tidal waves, geothermal and hydroelectric sources. The use of renewable energy promotes a greener Earth as it reduces pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The technology to use renewable resources is already available. Isabel Galiana and Christopher Green agreed that the increase in research and development about the utilization and application of technology involving renewable sources instead of setting emission targets would be more effective and attractive to both developing and developed countries.

Most of profit oriented bodies and businesses would prioritize technological changes that would increase industrialization even the expense of the environment. In the video, Ethical E-waste Recycling, the improvements in technology were shown as fast changing. Accompanying the fast pace changes were also the high amount of waste or garbage that are dangerous to health. This was also discussed in the video The Corporation that highlights the different human and corporate activities that destroys the environment and causes several illnesses and epidemics.

As discussed above, governments are almost always dependent on the economic milieu. Any government would maximize its potential to grow economically. Income-generating assets would therefore be preserved. Short-term incomes are prioritized over long-term benefits.

The failure of the Copenhagen Accord only revealed that a common decision among governments is still impossible due to conflicting interests. Therefore, a common ground solution must not solely rely on government decisions, instead NGOs and nonstate actors must also be encourage to initiate programs and devise conditions that would require the use of sustainable technology while limiting the emission of greenhouse gases. International organizations like the United Nations, the WHO, the WTO, the World Bank, International Red Cross and the IMF could set conditions that would encourage a greener world. Although governments play a pivotal role in the regulation of greenhouse omissions, their incapacity to come up with a unanimous decision would only put the planet at greater risks. Thus, the participation of non-state actors in the research and development of sustainable technology could directly affect the ability of the international community to meet regime goals (Chasek et al.,).  Furthermore, Chasek and colleagues noted that the international community has been able to negotiate an impressively large number of agreements to reduce environmental threats. This demonstrates the ability of international actors to affect the decisions of state actors. Chasek and colleagues further cited that there are environmental treaties that were completed and negotiated more quickly than with environmental treaties. Environmental treaties are usually concerned with limiting emissions or providing environmental control. Nevertheless, rules and laws are highly violated especially by large companies (Bakan, 2003).

Nonetheless, developed countries are not highly dependent on international and non-state actors as developing countries do, although these actors could influence their action. Most of the time, they are in control of these institutions. Thus, developed countries might be able to manipulate these non-government actors towards their favor. The institutions might be use to further exploit the resources available in developing countries.

Developing countries might feel pressured by non-state actors and international actors if they start to include several provisions that would require the use of renewable energy or the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Developing countries may not-at-all be able to follow the requirements set by International organizations. This could only become a burden to their current situation, especially if there are calamities or emergencies.

The mitigation of greenhouse gases has long been delayed. Developing countries are the ones who suffered most. The use of non-renewable energy generates greater tax or government profits. The use and expansion of research and development of renewable energy would increase expenses while decreasing government income. Therefore, governments would not simply agree to focus on sustainable development or to any type of approach that would more likely increase expenses and decrease income.

Simply waiting for governments to have a common agreement might take forever. Developed countries and developing countries each have their own goals and their own strategies in attaining those goals. Non-state actors and international actors are the only ones who have the capacity to influence governments to decide and act in respect or in accordance to their set standards or guidelines. Initiating research and supporting development to mitigate global climate change could not be possible if governments would work on their own, especially if there are no circumstances or authority that would inhibit them from pursuing their selfish desires.

I strongly believe that the biggest task or challenge to us these days is to conserve energy knowing its increase in scarcity day by day. However, with a little use of brains and creativity we can bring some prominent change and save energy at our houses.

At an average house, most of the energy is lost through little air vents present in our doors and windows, if we just check the flow of air with our hands and fix that space, we can easily keep our house warm in winters. We can fill any cracks or crevices on window frames, skirting boards of floors with filler or a sealant. Inlets can be made at different locations for cross circulation of air. This will allow automatic cooling of the house, consequently reducing electrical energy consumption.

A cost effective way to minimize heat loss is to give insulation to our roofs and invest in cavity wall protection. Black colored water pipes can be used on the roof tops to have the warm water circulation all over the house.

We can install container under our taps in the drain system to collect the unused water which would drain anyway and then later use it to water plants or other purposes.

Uses of energy efficient appliances such as energy saving lights are beneficial for cutting down electrical energy use to 50. In addition to that, we can use our window curtains wisely to save electricity during daytime and close them at sunset to keep the house warm.

By implementing the suggestions discussed above, a significant progress can be made towards improving the energy efficiency around the house.

Part 1 Energy Use Review

Make a list of all the ways you use energy on an average day.  Be specific about the activities you do.  For example make toast, cook dinner, use the phone, drive car, heat house, etc.  Once you have a list of ten things, determine what type of fuel is being used (oil, coal, natural gas, solar, etc).  If you dont know, take a guess.

Activity you do Fuel Type

1. use microwave coal

2. use cell phone   solar

3. use computer nuclear

4. heat the house natural gas

5. use public transport              bio fuel

6. drive a car                        gasoline

7. use the stove     natural gas

8. lit the house                oil

9. do laundry         oil

10. watch TV oil

Using this information, create a bar graph of how many times you use a particular type of fuel.  Combine your  information with that of at least two other individuals.

1.  Is the information you got from your group similar to the average energy use in the US (see graph below)  If not, what could be the reason for the difference
The information on energy consumption by sources of our group is slightly different from the data on the average energy use around the country. Renewable energy has a bigger share in amount of energy consumption of members of the group than of the USA in general. This share is 20 and 7 respectively. Difference in use of petroleum (oil) and natural gas is not notable, while share of nuclear and coal sources of energy of our group is 5 higher and 10 lower respectively.

This reason might be generated by industrial factories that are responsible for relatively big share in energy use of the country. And ratio of different source of energy used by them may vary from that of households. Moreover average citizens become more and more aware of the negative influence that energy waste may cause to the environment. Thats why they are willing to increase share of energy from renewable sources while for some factories it might be more complicated.

httpwww.eia.doe.govemeumeroverview.html to answer the following questions.

2.  How has Americas energy usage changed over the past 40 years  What source is used more often now and what is used less often
Total amount of energy used in the USA has been rising steadily over past 40 years. It has increased up to more then 100 Quadrillion Btu in 2008 while in 1970 it was between 70 and 80 Quadrillion Btu. At the same time use of energy becomes more efficient. Level of primary energy consumption per real USD of GDP has declined from a 15 to less than 10 Thousand Btu per chained USD. As to use of energy by source amount of petroleum used for energy production has always predominated. There was a jump from 30 to 35 Quadrillion Btu in the mid 70th and drop back to 30 in 80th with following steady growth in the next 25 years. This increase in the amount petroleum was accompanied by slight decrease of the amount of natural gas. Notable is amount of energy from renewable sources. It stays relatively steady while energy amount from other sources is increasing. Thats why no growth in its share can be observed.

What impact has this had on Americas energy supply  What do you think will happen to Americas domestic energy supply over the next 20 years

Because of the growth in the amount of energy used in the USA more energy has to be supplied yearly. To satisfy demand some of the fuels have to be imported since the country is not able to cover them from its own sources. In order to decrease funds spent on energy country is trying to use it more efficient and lower the prices on energy by using energy from more reasonable sources.
It is supposed that within next twenty years renewable sources will have had bigger share in the domestic energy supply. Otherwise the country will not be able to cope with growing energy demands.

Part 2  Individual Emissions Calculator

Go to the following website and calculate your household CO2 emissions.
HYPERLINK httpwww.epa.govclimatechangeemissionsind_calculator.html httpwww.epa.govclimatechangeemissionsind_calculator.html

Answer the following questions after you complete 4 of the current emissions section.

1.  What is your households total CO2 emissions
Our households total CO2 emissions per year is 103,809 lbs. Each household member causes 20,763 pounds of CO2 emissions yearly.

2.  How does that compare to the average US household of the same size  (this should be listed with your total emissions number)
The amount of CO2  emissions of the household is about average for the US household of 5 people.

3.  Why do you think your number is different than the average (if it is)
Continue with the next section and select options you have already taken or would be willing to try in the near future.

4.  What was your CO2 reduction and how much did it cost you
If we took some action in order to reduce the households CO2 emissions we it level would decrease by 18,088 pounds of CO2 per year and our savings would be 2,253 per year.

5.  What were some of the actions you took or could take to reduce your household emissions
We could turn down households heating thermostat on winter nights and households air conditioner thermostat in summer by just 5 degrees. That would lead to around 500 annual saving and decrease in
CO2 emissions by 4,5000 pounds. Reducing number of miles that are driven on both vehicles that we posses and their regular maintenance will also leas to some saving and decrease in level in CO2 emissions. Other activities that could be taken to reduce CO2 emissions are substituting some of the households current electricity use with Green Power, replacing old gas boiler with a more efficient Energy Star model, start recycling newspaper and magazines. These actions will help decrease our total emissions by up to 5.   Part 3  Statewide emissions

Go to the following website
 HYPERLINK httpwww.epa.govclimatechangeemissionsstate_energyco2inv.html httpwww.epa.govclimatechangeemissionsstate_energyco2inv.html and click the link for the State CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion.  This will give you the emissions by each state from 1990-2007.

1.  Which 2 states have the highest emissions  Which 2 states have the lowest emissions
Texas and California have the highest emissions level. South Dakota and Vermont have the lowest emissions.

2.  What do you think contributes to the differences between these states  (ie.  Why are the top 2 at the top and why are the bottom 2 at the bottom)
In 2007 level of CO2 emissions in Texas was 676 million metric tons ranking it firs among other states. This amount is caused equally by high level of emissions in industrial, transportation and electrical power sectors. Texas is followed by California where emissions of transportation sector are on the same level, yielding to Texas in industrial and electrical power emissions. They are respectively 3 and 4 times lower in California.
Level of CO2 emissions in transportation sector of the two top states is up to 50 times higher than in Vermont and South Dakota which are at the bottom. This difference is due to the difference in the population the lives in mentioned states. While Texas and California have the highest amount of citizens Vermont and South Dakota are among the least populated states. Moreover number of cars per Capita in both Texas and California are higher than in other states. Texas and California are also known as industrial states while South Dakota is mostly agricultural.

Find your home state and one other state of interest.  Answer the following questions.

3. Describe the trend in CO2 emissions from 1990-2007 for each state.  What do you think led to this trend
Michigan has an average level of CO2 emissions among other American states. Total amount is 292 million metric tons which was same in 1990. CO2 emissions of the state peaked in 1999 reaching 199.69 million metric tons. Downfall took place the next year with constant decrease and two more downfalls in the following years. Such trend is due to the industrial development of the state that took place in the second part of the 20th century and further decline caused by outsourcing that led to decreased economy of the, number of its citizens and their well-being .

Level of CO2 emissions in California has been rising constantly since 1996. Sharp rise has happened twice in 2000 and 2006. These years are known for growth of the economy in general and US economy in particular. California has constant growth in the population and industrial output, number of cars per capita is growing as well. All these tendencies lead to the increase in energy consumption and CO2 emissions.

4.  What sector of the economy is the biggest contributor to emissions in each state  Why do you think they contribute the most
Transport is the biggest contributor to emission in California and second biggest in Michigan. As has been mentioned population and number of cars per capita in California as well as cargo turnover are very high. Thats why theyre responsible for the greatest share in CO2 emissions.
In Michigan the biggest contributor is Electric Power.

Part 4  Whats being done

Go to the following website  HYPERLINK httpwww.pewclimate.orgstates-regions httpwww.pewclimate.orgstates-regions

1.  Use the map to check on the 2 states you used above and briefly describe some of the actions they are taking to counteract climate change.
The USA has the highest level of CO2 emissions in comparison with other industrial countries. The amounts are high not only due to the higher population but due to the inefficient energy use as well. Authorities have become very concerned by the problem and want to take urgent actions. Climate Action Plan has been adopted by most of the states and has to be completed in the nearest future.

In California, for example, it is required that 33 of electricity is generated from renewable sources by 2020. In order to decrease emissions from transportation thorough transportation planning is needed, new low-carbon fuel standards are to be developed as well as light-duty vehicles are to be used more widely.
In Michigan Among the state policies are initiatives to increase the use of distributed electric generation. Due to the plan share of nuclear energy in general energy consumption should increase. Others action that need to be taken include adopting more stringent building codes and creation of a system that encourages more efficient utilities.

Go to  HYPERLINK httpwww.nature.orginitiativesclimatechangeissues httpwww.nature.orginitiativesclimatechangeissues

What are some of the implications of climate change  Describe at least 5.

The most obvious implications of climate change are melting ice caps and rising sea level, increase of the average temperatures, increased frequency of droughts, floods and other natural cataclysms, changing landscapes and extinction of spices.

Increasing levels of CO2 emissions lead to the increase of temperatures all over the globe. High temperatures have direct impact on the climate change, cause droughts in some areas, evaporating moisture, and at the same time floods and rains in others. Global warming has its impact all over the globe and on the poles as well. Because of the warmer weather ice caps melt and sea level rises as a result. All these negative effects are closely interconnected. Changes of climate put under a threat many animal spices worsening their living conditions.

The incentive paid by the Manitoba government for purchasing hybrid cars should be increased to 4000 dollars from a current 2000 dollars

Two thousand scientists, in a hundred countries, engaged in the most elaborate, well organized scientific collaboration in the history of humankind, have produced long-since a consensus that we will face a string of terrible catastrophes unless we act to prepare ourselves and deal with the underlying causes of global warming.

-AL GORE, speech at National Sierra Club Convention, Sept. 9, 2005

Swane Arhenius(1896) suggested long back that carbon dioxide concentration would continue to increase with the increase in consumption of fossil fuels, thus leading to an acute problem of global warming. As per the data provided by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007), global greenhouse gas emissions have grown with an increase in 70 between 1970 and 2004. There is an immense need of a good action plan in order to prevent global warming.

Lively Barry (2007) described the likely effects of Global warming with the help of following table-

The conventional vehicle types are one of the primary sources of carbon emission, the increase in the usage of electric vehicle can be instrumental in reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. We need to analyze that whether a price incentive to select hybrid electric car over a conventional vehicle can really act as a motivational factor for a prospective car buyer and if the subsidy given can even motivate someone who would otherwise not buy any vehicle into buying a hybrid electric vehicle. Bordley (1993) determined that the decision on which car to buy is a price sensitive decision, and higher price sensitive than the decision concerning whether or not to buy a car. Bordley (1993) also identified that there is a higher chance of people making the car switch in the same segment rather than going to the other segment.

Cao and Mokhtarian (2004) revealed that consumer pays due significance towards maintenance cost which is negatively related to the demand of vehicles.  Further more studies conducted reveal that consumers have an inclination towards vehicle with low emissions as compared to the ones with higher emission rates (Dagsvik et. al., 2002) and if all the other things are constant then they give a preference to hybrid electric vehicles. The important thing to note over here is that price is an important aspect for the decision regarding which vehicle to buy and thus subsidy should be an important criterion and if increased the consumer will have a definite motivation to choose the hybrid electric car over the conventional car. Gallagher and Muehleggers (2008) suggested that increasing gas prices and per capita income both are directly related to the increase in demand for hybrid vehicles

Another important question is that are these subsidies justifiable for the favor of companies involved in manufacturing hybrid cars The answer to this is yes. This is because the hybrid vehicles need a higher initial capital costs because of greater technological complexity involved and the cost of gasoline saved with the help of these cars balances out the higher initial costs paid over a long time. Moreover if take in consideration the environmental costs associated then hybrid cars are more cost effective.

Lipman and Delucchi (2005) analyzed that even in the absence of any subsidy the hybrid cars are more cost effective than the conventional cars when they considered the cost of gasoline at 1.46gallon. Lave and Maclean (2001) also came up with similar analysis and they considered an average cost of gasoline to lie between 2.5 dollars to 3.5 dollars per gallon.

At the end our assumption that a higher subsidy will prove as a motivational factor for the prospective buyer towards buying hybrid electric vehicle has been supported by the thesis of Kelly Sims Gallagher and Erich Muehlegger (2008) who analyzed suggested that adoption of HEV in United States from 2000 to 2006 can be attributed to government incentives, consumer preference for environmental quality and changing price in gasoline.

There has been notable increase in the importance placed on educational attainment within the society. Education is viewed as a critical requirement to personal and professional development which has led to a myriad of studies seeking to determine the variables that affect attainment and success in education. Understanding the importance attached to students performance and the complexity surrounding it is therefore an important issue in learning and social development.

Background
The education system is charged with ensuring that students adopt skills and values that are important to the overall development of the society. This implies that the failure by the education systems which is often reflected by poor performance and behavioral problems affect the society. The adoption of strategies that are relevant and effective in addressing students performance is therefore a requirement that ensures the education system meets its goal to the society. However, studies that focus on student performance and how it is influenced by environmental variables mainly focus on the academic aspect (Park, 2008). A critical review of academic performance shows that it is affected by personal skills and behaviors displayed by students and therefore any objective analysis of performance should incorporate these vital variables (Harris, Chapman, Muijs, Russ,  Stoll, 2006). Moreover, social expectations on the education system include ensuring that students adopt positive behaviors and are acquainted with personal skills that are critical to their involvement in the community (Osokoya, 2005). Skills like appreciation of diversity, effective communication and orderliness though not overly emphasized by the education system are important to the society. Therefore, an objective consideration of students performance requires analysis on different aspects of performance which is yet to be appreciated by a host of researchers.

Purpose Statement
The purpose of the research is to determine environmental variables that affect students performance. In this study, students performance is considered as academic gains, behavioral development and acquisition of personal skills.

Research Question
The following research questions will help direct the study towards attainment of its aim. The main research question is what are the environmental variables that affect students performance The research question is broken down into the following specific research questions
What are the school environment variables that affect students performance
What are the home environment variables that affect students performance
What are the community environment variables that affect students performance

Rationale and Significance
The main rationale in formulating the study is the importance attached to educational attainment and success in academics by the modern society. Academic success affects ones stature in the society and is highly deterministic of the quality of life that one will attain. By improving access to information on available opportunities for personal and professional development, students performance within institutions affects social development.

The study seeks to determine the environmental variables that influence students performance. Determination of variables that influence academic performance, behavioral development and acquisition of personal skills by students will help the education system develop better strategies in ensuring transmission of knowledge and skills to students. Moreover, highlighting variables that influence skill acquisition and behavior development as aspects of students performance will help further research in these areas which have so far not been adequately considered as aspects of students performance.

Literature Review
Understanding students performance is an issue that educators have grappled with for several years. Educational institutions have been provided resources and staffed with experienced teachers in the hope that they will play a role in uplifting students performance. Studies have sought to determine if there are significant differences in students ability and factors that may be influencing such differences. In general, students performance has been analyzed with reference to the mechanics adopted in learning, the environment in which learning takes place, the expertise displayed by teachers and variations in students ability. Increase in research on students performance is mainly attributed to the importance attached to education and its role in improving quality of life (Eggens, Werf,  Bosker, 2008). However, with increase in awareness on education the focus has shifted from basic attainment to ensuring high levels of students performance. High students performance is associated with a wide platform for students to seek higher education and undertake other forms of vocation. On the other hand, low performance at any level is associated with a thin platform for seeking higher levels of education. In fact, the job market uses the educational scores in gauging applicants ability thus students performance plays a central role in determining opportunities and gains that they will make from the education system (Shek-kam, Wai-ip, Ka-yee,  Yu-hong, 2007).

Study One
In a study by Waters, Cross,  Runions (2009), it was established that there are varied factors that affect adolescents levels of connectedness to school and therefore their potential academic gains. The article asserts that there is little that has been researched and established on the effect of school characteristics on the levels of connectedness displayed by children to academics and how this connection is developed. This study seeks to determine the effect of the school environment on academic potential displayed by students.
Students who are concerned to school or feel connected to school are less likely to engage in activities that could be detrimental to their cadmic and psychological development (Waters, Cross,  Runions, 2009). The level of connectedness to school is a predictor to mental development in students and determines the propensity to developing mental problems in latter stages of life. Though students are expected to engage in learning activities, there are numerous environmental and internal factors that may affect their levels of commitment to attaining academic goals. Engagement in drugs, hormonal outbursts as a result of adolescence and social issues for instance availability of drugs and liquor are likely to detract students from seeking academic goals which affects their potential. Developing a school environment that ensures students appreciate education and feel connected to others within the same environment plays a vital role in mitigating risks associated with practical learning environments.

Waters, Cross  Runions (2009) adopt a qualitative design that focuses on reviewing the existing literature to determine how connectedness is developed and the influential variables. The review of existing literature though effective in bringing out different dimensions of the problem being analyzed by the study is prone to bias and assertions that support a predetermined viewpoint. However, the findings from the study provide an effective framework for analyzing some of the environmental variables that may influence students performance.

The leadership of a school as an institution goes a long way in defining the nature of the school climate and therefore the level and nature of interaction between different members of a school. School leadership determines the attitudes, values and norms that are transmitted via school activities (Lee, Daniels, Puig, Newgent,  Nam, 2008). The disciplinary culture adopted by a school which affects the personal skills and behavioral development in students is influenced by the leadership systems adopted by a school. In general, most studies assert that the school environment or climate affect the levels of students connectedness and therefore their potential performance via policy and practice, school ethos and culture and the level of involvement by parents in school activities. Gaps in adopted frameworks and methodological inequities are some of the challenge faced in developing knowledge on the school environment. According to Waters, Cross,  Runions (2009), despite the existence of studies that seek to understand the school climate and its effects on students connectedness and performance, a full range of ecological or environmental factors within the school setting is yet to be captured. The findings assert that the build school environment considerably affect the value that are adopted by students. Connectedness and development of values that promote academic performance has to be developed by the combined efforts of school administrators, students and teachers (Waters, Cross,  Runions, 2009). The provision of appropriate recreational facilities and playing equipments goes a long way in providing a platform through which students can interact with others in a manner that promotes acquisition and development of skills and behaviors that are acceptable to the society.
The classroom environment is deterministic of the nature of interaction between students and teachers which affect the levels of transmission and retention attained. Cooperative learning, information sharing and open discussions are considered to be some of the effective practices in ensuring knowledge transmission and development of personal skills among students. Such strategies are not supported by random classroom designs and didactic teaching practices. The classroom layout and design are integral components of the school environment and play a vital role in determining the efficiency of information sharing and transmission within a class.

Study Two
A study by Harlaar, Dale,  Plomin (2007) found that reading exposure is an environment mediated factor that affects the readings scores recorded by students. In a study that included 3039 twin pairs and  assessed reading exposure using the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE), the findings show that though genetic influences play a role in determining engagement in reading activities, the availability of reading materials and information resources is critical in determining reading scores. Previous researches had neglected the potential effects of genes and environmental factors in analyzing the nature of relationship between reading achievement and exposure (Harlaar, Dale,  Plomin, 2007 Waters, Cross,  Runions, 2009). The study asserts that environmental factors have an indirect effect on reading scores recorded by students. Access to reading materials, the appropriateness of the materials to students reading skills and information needs and attitudes towards reading in students homes are also influential on reading achievement (Nielsen, 2006). This is mainly because the levels of reading exposure which affects the perception that is developed of reading is affected by factors that are external to students for instance the community and the home environment. Reading is considered one of the fundamental aspects of academic performance and is often used as an indicator to academic performance. It is therefore evident by considerations on the nature of academics and the findings developed by this study that multiple environmental factors influence students academic performance.

Study Three
The home environment is a source of literacy even before children engage in formal education. The home environment and the resources it provides for students to improve their academic gains and develop positive behaviors affect students performance (Ko,  Chan, 2009). The home environment is defined by several variables which include educational resources that it provides to students, the attitudes towards learning and education that students encounter within their families and the level of involvement by parents in their children education. Positive literacy experienced at home affects the reading skills and habits that are developed by students. Other skills that are important to academic development and personal skill acquisitions including listening comprehension, phonological awareness and vocabulary development are to a large extent affected by the home environment (Ko,  Chan, 2009). It is common parental knowledge that students that are born within neighborhoods or families where they interact easily with other children tend to learn faster due to the effect that the family and community environment has on availability of learning and knowledge resources which affects engagement in learning (Ko,  Chan, 2009). Communities defined by high levels of educational attainment have a motivating effect on students to attain similar if not higher levels of education. On the other hand, communities defined by high school dropout levels, elevated levels of teenage drug use and irresponsible parenting do not motivate students to attaining high levels of education. Thus the home environment and the community considerably influence the levels of educational attainment that students can muster. These are findings from a study carried out by Ko,  Chan (2009) on the effects of the home environment on academic performance and personal skill development among Chinese students. Primary data and use of standardized assessment tools characterize the methodological approach adopted in the study.

Evidently, the home, school and community have an effect on the environment in which a child is expected to learn. Therefore understanding the influences that these variables have on the learning environment presents a suitable platform to ensuring that students are presented with the best mix of factor to ensure their success in education. However, the current frameworks and methodological aspects have been cited as lacking which calls for new methodological approaches (Waters, Cross,  Runions, 2009). Adopting an effective framework would also ensure that different aspects that affect learning are captured by the study while ensuring that practical issues that influence transmission and retention of information are considered in the study.

Theoretical Framework
The theoretical model that will be adopted in the study has been outlined in the figure above. The theoretical model incorporate the school, home and community ecology as variables that are highly influential on the levels of autonomy, relatedness and competence developed  by students. It is noteworthy that relatedness, autonomy and competence displayed by a student are important in determining the nature of interaction between a student and others in a school environment. According to the adopted theoretical framework, connectedness to educational goals and objectives is determined by the levels of competence displayed by a student. Ability to relate to educational goals and a students ability to make progress as an individual or seek information (autonomy) also determine gains made via schooling. Development of positive behavior, acquisition of personal skills and improvement in academic ability are all a results of the level of connectedness displayed by students towards attaining educational goals. This can be derived from educational and learning theories which assert that students perceptions of education and their ability determine the benefits that they will gain out of the school systems. Connectedness determines the willingness by a student to gain from the education system which goes a long way in improving educational goals.

The adopted theoretical model clearly assert that the home, community and school environment collectively plays a role in determining the levels of connectedness to school by a student which determines academic performance, behavioral development and personal skills acquisition levels. It is thus clear that the adopted theoretical model supports the development of the following working hypotheses
The home environment significantly affects students performance.
The school environment significantly affects students performance.
The community ecology significantly affects students performance.

Research Design
A quasi-experimental design will be adopted in the study. The research design is adopted mainly due to its relevance to the nature of the problem being studied. It is worth noting from analysis of the existing studies that the authenticity of a number of studies in the same area has already been brought into question. Adoption of poor theoretical frameworks and inadequate research approaches are to blame for the low integrity ratings by current studies. A quasi experimental research design provides a robust platform for the researcher to address authenticity issues while developing the study in a manner that is relevant to addressing the specific research questions. A quasi-experimental research design also provides a wider platform for the researcher to address the multiple issues that are involved in addressing the research questions. The study addresses the home, schools and community environments as well as considering performance from three dimensions namely academic performance, acquisition of personal skills and behavioral development. It is quite evident that the research is wide which calls for the inclusion of internal systems that will ensure that the varied issues and areas involved in the study are well addressed.

Analysis will be based on quantitative data thus the need for adoption of a research approach that allows for collection of quantitative data is critical to the study. The population in the study will be defined as teachers of students between grades eight and twelve. The emphasis on teachers rather than students is from consideration on the nature of the study and the problems being considered in the study. Teachers have greater experience of factors that affect students performance and can provide a concise and deep analysis of the home, school and environmental variables that influence students performance. Furthermore, teachers ease the research process since their inclusion in the study as participants eliminates the need to seek permission from parents which would have been the case had students been considered the population in the study. It is noteworthy that the specific methodological approaches adopted in the study are largely influenced by considerations on the research problem and the research questions which improve the authenticity and integrity of the study and the data that will bee developed as a result of the research process.

The first step in the study would be determining the schools that will be involved in the study. Use of more than one school in the study is a requirement resulting from the need to capture any variations across the population and address random errors that may affect the credibility of the study. School administrators would be interviewed in efforts aimed at seeking permission to conduct the study in institutions that they head. Moreover, since the study will involve teachers in the seventh, eight, ninth and tenth grades inclusion of different schools is mandatory considering that the grades being in the study are representative of different levels of education. Choice of the specific schools will be guided by the need to ensure equal representation of primary and secondary schools. Two schools will be randomly selected at the primary schools level and the same will be done at secondary school level. Another important consideration is that the schools will be chosen randomly from schools that have already display the willingness to be included in the study. It is worth noting that seeking permission from the administrators ensures that the teachers involved in the study are at ease which improves the accuracy of the collected data.

After the study has been communicated to the teachers they will be required to fill a survey that will seek to determine issues surrounding the research questions. The questionnaires will have both open and closed questions to provide structure which is important in deriving quantitative data and flexibility which is critical in highlighting specific environmental factors that influence students performance. Randomization in the study is important in minimizing the effect of random errors on the study is attained via use of random number generators when choosing the schools that will be involved in the study. Furthermore, the willingness of the teachers to engage in the study is not affected by the research which brings out an aspect of randomization.

Data Collection
Data collection will be done with the use of a questionnaire. A questionnaire provides a robust platform for the teachers or rather respondents to order their thoughts so as to present a clear response to the issues highlighted within the question forms. Furthermore, a questionnaire makes it easy to collect data from respondents from different schools. In addition to including open and closed questionnaire, likert-type questions will be included in the questionnaire to help in operationalisation of the variables that are involved in the stated hypotheses.

Variable and Operationalization
A number of variables are considered in the study. The dependent variable in the study is students performance which is considered to be academic performance, acquisition of personal skills and behavioral development. Improvement in students performance is measured by the perceptions that teachers have on student development. The perception is captured with the aid of one-five point scale likert-type questions used in the questionnaires. The independent variables in the study are the school environment which is defined as the structure, organization and values that are definitive of the class and school the home environment which is defined by the social and personal interaction between students and their siblings or parents and lastly the community environment which is defined as non-school and non-family factors that affect interaction between a student and other members of the community.

Analysis
Chi-square analysis will be used in analyzing the developed hypotheses. Chi-square is used because the only variable being considered in hypotheses testing is teachers perception on the effects that different environments have on students performance. Descriptive analysis which will be aided by tables and scatter plots will help capture the variables that have been relayed by the teachers as being influential on students performance. Use of statistical software in the study will help improve accuracy in hypothesis testing.

Biases and Limitations
The following are some of the biases and limitation that may affect the study
Personal theories by teachers on factors that influence performance may cloud their judgment resulting in inaccurate data.

The study is highly dependent on the experience that teachers have accumulated and may therefore be inaccurate if the teachers involved in the study have few years of practical teaching experience.

Teachers may view students performance in terms of academic gains rather than behavior development or skill acquisition.

The global rise in total population has brought about an exponential increase in the net demand for consumer goods, energy, and industrial materials. Consequently, households, public institutions, and industrial installations are producing more waste than has never been preceded before in history. There is environment is struggling on one side to maintain a continuous and sufficient flow of resources to meet this demand and the energy required for industrial and home use and on the other to survive the pollution caused by the pile-up of domestic and industrial waste. Every day, tons of metal, glass and plastic containers used to package packed foodstuffs and drinks are discarded into the environment, and more of these packaging is required to meet demand. The environment becomes more polluted and natural resources continuously depleted. The answer to all these problems lies to a significant account on recycling.

Even though recycling has been proven to be beneficial to the society and environment, there are still challenges to its implementation, and unless we weigh the pros against the cons of recycling, we will not be able to determine whether its a noble cause or not and it will be hard to convince the masses to embrace it. First, a challenge facing the implementation of recycling programs is the initial cost. Recycling programs are relatively expensive to install as compared to sourcing requirements from already operational fresh production infrastructure (Hershkowitz 13). Secondly, it is hard to create awareness in the community regarding the benefits of recycling. In most cases, the benefits drawn from this cause are not immediately visible and the financial gains are seemingly insignificant. Some people have argued that instead of recycling, the society should decrease its consumption and reuse materials and packaging where applicable. Thirdly, the society lacks the technical know-how to fully understand which materials and substances are recyclable and the methods and criteria of sorting them.

Another argument opposing the implementation of recycling is the scale. In densely populated areas, the amount of waste generated is sufficient to justify the use of recycling methods but in smaller neighborhoods, the investment required to put up a recycling infrastructure is high compared to the volume of garbage these municipalities generate, rendering recycling initiatives unable to be self sustaining and economically unviable (Hershkowitz 13). Consequently, opponents of recycling advocate for the reduction of packaging materials and re-usage instead of recycling.

In my opinion, it will be extremely hard, even impossible to alter the consumption patterns of the society. Companies tailor their products to suit their customers needs in a very competitive marketplace therefore controlling the nature of packaging not only reduces the choices people have on what to purchase, but also eliminates the competitive edge on business activities. Furthermore, it could cut off the population with a lesser consuming power from accessing the products they need for their daily life. Secondly, it is true that the initial cost of setting up recycling plants is high, but in the long run as I shall soon point it out, the benefits of recycling outweigh these hindrances. Even if little financial incentive is available to the community, there is nothing better and healthy than living in a polluted environment, and the recycling of waste greatly reduces the levels of pollution.

As mentioned earlier, pollution levels are rising, and so is the rate of depletion of natural resources. To conserve the environment and our natural resources for use by future generations, we need to recycle waste. With every ton of waste recycled, a ton of garbage is eliminated from the earths surface, reducing the amount of landfill required to pile up this garbage and the detriment on the environment due to trash (Arms). Secondly, recycling materials requires far much lesser energy than processing them direct from the raw materials (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). At a time when the world is struggling to sufficiently meet its energy requirements, recycling not only conserves energy but also reduces emissions to the atmosphere from manufacturing industries.

Recycling has been slow to pick up not because people are unwilling to participate, but because the awareness is not there. If recycling programs are initiated in every neighborhood, office, and public institution, this awareness and environmental consciousness will increase as people strive to keep their environment clean and unpolluted-every society is happy and healthy. It is because of this that I recommend aggressive sensitization of the society on the benefits and methods of recycling (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). First, it is important to know which materials are recyclable. Metal is usually sorted according to type-steel, aluminum, brass and so on. Placed differently, it can be taken to a collection point and to the factory for smelting. Waste paper should be deposited at the waste collection point where it is forwarded to the plant, made into pulp and into paper again. Plastics are the biggest threat to the environment due to the quantities involved and surprisingly are the easiest to recycle (Arms). Plastic bottles and paper needs only be cleaned and deposited at a designated collection point.

Using the slightest effort to place your waste in a designated recycling point achieves much towards environmental and resource conservation. Furthermore, recycling can be done at home or in conjunction with relevant authorities as an income generating venture. The more people support recycling efforts, the cheaper they get. A lot of money is saved through recycling, and an efficient recycling system creates over 1 million jobs in the US, boosting the annual payroll by over 37 billion (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).

Certainly, recycling does much more good than harm. To encourage firms and households to recycle, the government should offer a remuneration or tax reliefs for consistency in recycling. We all have a duty to protect our environment and conserve our natural resources for our descendants. I therefore plead with everyone to strive and participate in this effort. The first step is learning how to sort out waste into respective recyclable categories and depositing it in the designated spots. Municipalities on their part should establish as many recycling centers and waste collection points as possible while educating the community on the recycling options it offers. As recycling becomes more efficient and cost effective when done in large scale, everyone who sees the benefits it has to offer should take a personal responsibility to educate family, friends and work colleagues, even the employer, to embrace this noble effort of maintaining communal health and resource integrity. I am not disputing that reduction is also an avenue for lowering waste accumulation we all should be conscious of how much waste we unnecessarily deliver to the environment and make a conscious effort to minimize it. Plastic bags or any other waste that is reusable should be reused, and if the opportunity is there to use biodegradable packaging in place of plastics or bottles, then this opportunity should be seized with enthusiasm.

97 of water on Earth is salty and therefore is not suitable for drinking. The remaining amount of fresh water has always been enough to satisfy needs of the mankind. But rapid growth of the population leads to rising demand on drinking water. Problem of clean water supply shortage has already been faced in many parts of the Globe.

Government of the USA is on the alert. Number of states and cities has already initiated measures increasing water use efficiency. Olympia, WA can serve as a good example.

The city has never suffered from droughts and can boast mild climate. Getting about 50 inches of rain a year the area seems to have unlimited access to water resources. Nevertheless, heightened water demand during summer months and constantly growing number of city residents call for water conservation. D.Poushard states that the city has had one since 1997 and has expanded in scope every year since its inception.

The city of Olympia water conservation program has several policies in different areas. It stipulates for implementation of practices aimed at indoor, outdoor and commercial water conservation. The city is a partner in Water Conservation Programs offered by LOTT Alliance which offer residential sewer customers free high-efficiency toilets to replace older, water-wasting fixtures (residential toilet program), free high-efficiency toilets and installation to eligible commercial sewer customers (commercial toilet program),  100rabats on resource-efficient washing machines that can save the average household up to 8,000 gallons of water per year, rebates to industrial, commercial, and institutional customers who install water-saving technologies.

According to the City of Olympia website other aspects of the program include annual rain barrel sales at subsidized price, free rain gauges and rain sensors, free irrigation checkups for high water user customers, free hose repair kits aimed at reducing leaking water waste, education seminars and information. The City of Olympia provides This Lawn Isnt Dead, its Just Sleeping signs for water customers who choose to let their lawns go dormant. If lawns in front of every house were dormant it would be possible to save up to 50 of water that is spent during summer months.

Implementation of the arrangements is ensured by number of financial incentives which have proved to be more effective than penalizing. John Anderson, Senior Fellow of the Water Conservation Institute, states that Government agencies need to be encouraging irrigators and farmers to conserve water, not punishing them. (Anonymous, 2010) Moreover because of existing water conservation rates aimed at decrease of water consumption residents as well as business are interested in cutting down their bills through more efficient water usage. D. Pushard assures that most customers opt to find out more and in fact reduce their water consumption between 17-20 by following the actions recommended by city conservation specialists.

Problem 1
Estimate the incremental cancer risk for a 60-kg worker exposed to a particular carcinogen under the following circumstances. Exposure time is 5 days per week, 50 days per year, over a 25-year period of time. The worker is assumed to breathe 20 m3 of air per day. The carcinogen has a potency factor of 0.2 (mgkg-day)-1 and its average concentration is 0.05 mgm3.

Given
BW  60kg Frequency  5 dayswk, 50 wksyr Duration  25yrs
Inhalation rate 20m3day PF  0.2 kg-daymg Ave. Concentration  0.05 mgm3
Estimated Lifespan  70yrs

Incremental Cancer Risk (CR)  Chronic Intake (CI) x Potency Factor (PF)

Chronic Intake (CI) Cave x Irate x Frequency x DurationBW x Est. Lifespan x 365daysyr
CI (0.05 mgm3)(20 m3day)(5 dayswk)(50wksyr)(25 yrs)(60kg) (70yrs) (365daysyr)
CI (0.05)(20)(5)(50)(25)mg(60)(90)(365)kg-dayCI  4.077 x 10-3 mgkg-day

Incremental Cancer Risk (CR)  (4.077 x 10-3 mgkg-day) x (0.2 kg-daymg)
Incremental Cancer Risk  8.154 x 10-3

Problem 2
Suppose drinking water contains 1.0 mgL of toluene and 0.01 mgL of tetrachloroethylene(C2Cl4). A 70kg adult drinks 2L per day of this water for 10years. What the hazard index suggest that this was a safe level of exposure

Given
RfD for toluene 0.200 mgkg-day
RfD for tetrachloroethylene(C2Cl4) 0.010 mgkg-day
BW  70 kg Intake  2 Lday Ctoluene  1.0 mgL CC2Cl4  0.01 mgL

Hazard Index (HI)  Chronic Daily Intake (CDI)  Reference Dose (RfD)

CDI  (Concentration x Intake)  Body Weight (BW)

CDItoluene  (1.0 mgL) (2Lday)  (70kg)
CDItoluene  2.86 x 10-2 mgkg-day

CDIC2Cl4  (0.01 mgL) (2Lday)  (70kg)
CDIC2Cl4  2.86 x 10-4 mgkg-day

HItoluene  2.86 x 10-2 mgkg-day  0.200 mgkg-day
HItoluene  0.143

HIC2Cl4  2.86 x 10-4 mgkg-day  0.01 mgkg-day
HIC2Cl4  0.0286

Hazard index values for toluene and tetrachloroethylene are less than 1.0, and as such suggest that no adverse health effects to the subject can occur. Thus, the exposure levels are safe.

Problem 3
Suppose 30 out of 500 rats exposed to potential carcinogen develop tumors. A control group of 300 rats not exposed to carcinogen develops only 10 tumors.
Based on these data, compute

a) The relative risk
Relative Risk  (XC x NN)  (XN x NC)
Where
XC   of tumors in rats exposed to carcinogen (30)
NN   of rats not exposed to carcinogen (300)
XN   of tumors in rats not exposed to carcinogen (10)
NC   of rats exposed to carcinogen (500)

Relative Risk  (30)(300)  (10)(500)
Relative Risk  1.8

b) The attributable risk
Attributable Risk  XC(XCXN)YC(YCYN)

Where
XC and XN are the same as above
YC   of rats exposed to carcinogen without tumors  NC - XC
YN   of rats exposed not exposed to carcinogen without tumors  NN   XN

Attributable Risk  (30)(30  10)  (470)(470  290)  0.75  0.62
Attributable Risk  1.37

c) The odds ratio
Odds Ratio  XC x YNXN x YC
Where
XC,YN, XN, and YC are the same as above.

Odds Ratio  (30) (290)8700(10) (470)4700Odds Ratio  1.85

Do these indicators suggest that there might be a relationship between exposure and tumor risk
All three values of the indicators are greater than one, thus these suggest that a relationship exists between tumor risk and exposure.

Air pollution in urban areas is a serious environmental problem because it has adverse health problems. It is more prevalent in urban areas due to the fact that more industries as well as other pollutants are positioned in urban sectors. There also very few air purifiers in urban settings and the high population worsens the situation. Studies by Koenig, (2002) reveal that in major cities, the greatest damage of the human health is caused by the inhalation of air pollutants like carbon monoxide, lead, sulphur oxides among others. These pollutants are responsible for the respiratory problems and diseases like asthma, visual impairment, and decreased pulmonary function among other problems. This paper shall therefore describe the health related problems caused by air pollution, the most vulnerable members of the community, and the preventive measures that can be taken to reduce the effects of the problem.

Background information,
There are many types of air pollutants. The levels of these pollutants are high in the urban areas. Lead is the most common in these areas and is very dangerous because even exposure to small amounts has adverse effects especially to children. Lead is known to be a major cause of learning disabilities as well as being linked to renal failure. Carbon monoxide is also a major air pollutant mainly from gasoline fueled cars (Koenig, 2002). Further studies reveal that oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are also key air pollutants and they also form secondary particulate matter which is equally dangerous. Ozone from the gasoline fueled vehicles also affects the pulmonary functioning of the individuals.

Health problems associated with outdoor and in door air pollution in urban areas.
Most of the health problems are associated with the out door pollutants. Asthmatic patients are mostly affected by the air pollutants as they trigger asthmatic attacks. Persons with heart diseases are also affected by these air pollutants and are even more risky than healthy people. Generally the air pollutants have been linked with increased rates of respiratory infections like bronchitis and chronic cough, both in adults and also in young children.  Lead has been liked with high blood pressure as well as increased rates of miscarriage because it affects the reproductive system (Koenig, 2002).

Carbon monoxide from gasoline fuelled emissions has been linked with visual impairment as well as the main cause of chest pains to people with heart diseases as it reduces the bloods capacity to carry oxygen throughout the body. Nitrogen and Sulphur Oxides affect the lung functioning causing respiratory problem more so to people with asthma. Most of the health problems linked with in door and out door air pollution are therefore respiratory problems, lung problems as well as pulmonary problems. In door air pollution is mostly caused by smoke from charcoal and other forms of fuel that release poisonous gases during combustion.

Vulnerable groups,
Among the vulnerable groups of people, children together with the people suffering from chronic diseases are the most affected. Childrens immunity is very and that is the reason why they are more susceptible. Studies done by (Koenig, 2002) reveal that lead absorption depends with the age, nutrition status and physiological status of a person. Children and more so those suffering from malnutrition, are more susceptible as lead is absorbed more in cases where there is low dietary calcium intake as well as low iron. The fact that children suffer from malnutrition more than adults, increases their chances of being affected by these pollutants.
Role of a Health Educator Consultant,
Needs assessment,
My role as a health educator in this project will be to identify the health problems caused by the air pollutants. It is important to identify the air pollutants that cause these health problems. I will also identify the most vulnerable groups and the reasons that contribute to their vulnerability. The next next will be to establish the interventions that can be taken to mitigate the problem.

Interventions,
The first intervention will be to educate the community on the dangers of the air pollutants and how these pollutants affect their health. The community needs also to be taught on how to avoid coming in to contact with the pollutants. For indoors interventions, they should be taught on the importance of minimizing the chances of coming in to contact with the pollutants. This can be achieved by minimizing use of fuel like wood and coal, in poorly ventilated places and use of less polluting fuels. They should also avoid residing in areas that are more prone to these pollutants like near industries as well as near the main roads.

Children, the sick and the malnourished being more vulnerable should be protected by placing measures that will improve their nutrition statuses. As revealed by studies that lead absorption in the body increases with decreased intake of calcium and iron, it is paramount to ensure that all members of the public are well nourished. This may involve enlisting the services of a nutritionist or nutrition programs in health centers.

Conclusion,
Since air pollutants are dangerous to mankind, preventive measures aught to be taken to reduce the rate at which human beings come in to contact with them. It is important to involve all people concerned in all the interventive measures. Since children and the sick are the most vulnerable then strict measures aught to be taken to protect them. Lastly all members of the community should have enough knowledge on the same so as to make sure that they can take care of themselves.

The demand for energy is growing tremendously, and this calls upon introduction of new energy sources or improvement on the current sources. An example of such energy source is coal. Coal has been used for a long time, and technological improvement has resulted in clean coal. Clean coal is a word that is used to define technologies and methods that are intended to reduce the environmental impact of utilization of coal as a form of energy source (Coal Can Do It, 2010). These efforts and strategies may include the use of gasification, chemically washing impurities and minerals from the coal, removal of sulfur dioxide, and other appropriate technologies that are aimed at capturing carbon dioxide from the flue gas. The term clean coal has predominantly been discussed in the cycles of politics and environmental agencies with differing views. However, this paper shows that the use of clean coal is beneficial to the society and environment. Some points that show importance of clean coal can be viewed in terms of economic, environment and waste, and these points have been extensively discussed.

Environment awareness is an important issue that many governments and organizations are championing to either preserve or correct past environmental approaches. The use of clean coal can easily cut the amounts of greenhouse gas emissions. The use technologies ensure that contaminants, high levels of impurities and other pollutants are processed into an inexpensive, clean, low polluting source of energy. Moreover, the demand for electricity is skyrocketing the use of coal can mitigate consequences associated with hydroelectricity production. Americas Power (2010) states that in 1975, 44 of power was supplied by coal and this supply has grown to 54 by the year 2000. Since the demand for coal is increasing, it is paramount to provide clean coal rather than unclean coal to sustain the power requirements. Clean coal combats global warming because it reduces the amount of green house gas produced, and the use of clean coal as drastically and continuously cut emissions from coal. Global warming requires pursuing alterative and greener energy, and thus, any technology or means that can even modestly aid in fighting against global warming should be encouraged. Thus, the use of clean coal is aimed at ensuring the amounts of emissions directed to global warming are reduced (Coal Can Do It, 2010).

Use of coal is associated with emissions while the use of clean coal is associated with clean coal waste. Clean coal waste is better compared to coal emissions. However, opponents of clean coal state that the clean coal merely transfers emissions into another form, which is solid waste  a superior alternative the major factor that is associated with coals massive carbon emissions is global warming. Solid waste from clean coal is not a major concern in regards to global warming since the solid waste does not emit greenhouse gases (Coal Can Do It, 2010). The hazards associated with clean coal waste can easily be contained compared to coal emissions. This may be seen as clean coal waste analyzed from a theoretical perspective, but there is no enough reasons in that solid waste cannot be regulated and the risks controlled. Thus, risks may occur because of human management shortcomings but not on clean coal waste hence, these problems can be solved through incorporating stickier regulation. Moreover, the clean coal waste can be reused. Either the byproducts of clean coal process are stored and reused on the secondary chemical sector or the methane gas that is produced is re-introduced production of energy (Clean Coal Technologies, 2010). Additionally, the sequestered carbon dioxide form coal can be utilized in growing of algae for biofuel. Algae operate like other plant matter, and utilize carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, and hence, sequestered carbon dioxide can be used to fertilize and grow algae. The resultant algae are then used as the organic matter in creation of biofuel. Numerous companies such as Canadian Global Green Solutions and Green Fuel have constructed photo-bioreactors (PBR) that quickly converts carbon dioxide into algae, which is easily synthesized into biofuel. Hence, a convenient approach can be used t deal with sequestered carbon dioxide and other wastes from clean coal.

The amount of coal is abundant and it is cheap to make it clean. Some opponents argue that clean is partially developed compound with the high cost of production means that it will take a long time before its impact can be felt in either the economy or global warming. Americas Power (2010) state that the use of coal to produce electricity is less than a third of the cost of production of energy from other fuels. The price of oil is soaring, dependency on foreign oil, energy shortages, and thus alternative sources of energy should be utilized. Vast quantities of coal are available, and utilizing this coal could ensure for energy security and reduce cost for energy (Levin 2008). Moreover, the use of clean coal provides a constant base-load compared to other renewable. For example, solar and wind energy sources are commonly used but are not always available. This is different from clean coal because it provides a base load power base load power is steady, constant, and it is dependable throughout the door (Americas Power, 2010). Levin (2008) argue that electric cars will increase the demand for clean coal, and this could reduce the dependency on foreign oil. Thus, the extra electricity should be generated from the burning clean coal.

Demand for energy is skyrocketing and one of the strategies is utilization of clean coal as an alternative. Clean coal s a term that is used to refer to technologies and methods, which reduces the impact of coal energy to the environment and society. Clean energy is beneficial to the society because of its environmental, economic, and waste contributions. Environmentally, it reduces global warming through control of emissions, from the waste perspective, clean coal produces solid waste that can easily be collected and reused benefiting the society. Moreover, economically, it reduces dependency on foreign oil, reduces cost of energy, vast amounts of coal are available, and generally improvement on clean coal production results into efficient future. The debate on clean coal should not exist because even if the clean coal is not championed, many industries will continue utilizing coal in production of energy. Thus, the use of clean coal should be encouraged and sustained in improving economies and the society.

One of the greatest threats to any economy in the world is lack of energy independence. An economy will be vulnerable to any shortage of energy supply in the world market which is followed by great prices increases. Energy independent policy should constitute a core part of any government agenda and objectives. It is asserted that America is the largest consumer of oil in the world. As the third producer of petroleum in the world, America has along journey towards achieving energy independence. Much of policies to ensure energy independence need to be blended with already existing policies to ensure energy independence objective is achieved as soon as possible.  

The sanctions by  Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) on US for taking Israels side on the Israel-Palestinian (read Israel-Arab) conflict in 1970s raised concern in terms of America  self reliance in energy supply.  America energy supply has not been able to cater all energy demand in the country despite the country harboring enormous energy resources of coal, oil and natural gas. This calls for greater efforts by the government and the people of America to eradicate energy wastage while conserving the available energy resources.    The call to research and develop other renewable sources of energy should be at hand.  Mere plans and promises by the previous government to ensure energy independence have continued to make America vulnerable to world energy crisis.

A more logic plan need to be instituted to guide America towards energy independence.  It is good to note that America has lagging behind some countries e.g. China and Spain in research and development of renewable sources of energy which will ensure energy independence. This has also contributed to great environmental degradation by the America economy since great current use of petroleum, coal and natural gas lead to emission of large amounts of carbon gases which are pollutants and lead to global warming

The meaning of energy independence
Energy independence can simply be said to be a state of self reliance in energy supply to meet the energy demand in a country. An energy independence country will not rely in imports of energy. It will withstand current and future world energy shortages.

According to Stephen (1977) sanction by OPEC against U.S in 1973 aroused the need to chart the way forward in the whole course of achieving energy independence. Speed limit reduction and use of efficient appliances were some of the recommendations by the President Carters government. The Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards were also suggested. Research for alternative energy sources was to be intensified. The research would ensure reduction in oil drilling which poses a big environmental risk to wildlife.

Coal fired plants in America has also continued to emit great amount of carbon gas which pollute the air and at the same time causing global warming. The nuclear power generation was also seen as a solution towards achieving energy independence. However this can be one of the terrorists target and also poses a great danger in a case where a mistake is done in nuclear plant allowing radio active radiations to the atmosphere. This can harm living organisms.  Other alternative sources of energy which were to be utilized include wind farms, geothermal energy and solar energy. These are renewable sources of energy and their negative environmental impact is very little as compared to coal, petroleum and natural gases. Since then great efforts have been gathered towards achieving energy independence but the full marks is yet to be scored.
The question is can America become energy independent
 
America is the largest economy in the world and third rated producer of petroleum in the world.  Energy independence can be achieved in America.  America has enough resources to embark on great research and development of new renewable energy sources which are also friendly to the environment. Chiras (2006) suggest that energy independence can be achieved through solar, wind, hydro and wind power. In scrutinizing these four sources of energies in terms of environmental benefit it is apparent that they are friendly to environment. First, they have no emissions which are harmful to the environment as opposed to non renewable resources like petroleum, coal and natural gas which produces pollutant carbon gases. Coal and petroleum involves drilling which also interfere with environmental settings. It may lead to people displacement, destruction of wildlife and the landscape cropping. Places where coal digging has occurred are characterized by cropped landscape and are not conducive for human habitation.

The plan towards achieving energy independence in America
Many acts have been enacted to facilitate achievement of energy independence in America. David (2008) had the following suggestions to any presidential aspirant who is rely out to ensure energy dependence in America

Promotion of plug in hybrid cars
These cars have batteries which doesnt necessary require to be charged by energy from the engine. This will enhance efficient use of energy from the car engine and thus save the energy on the other hand these cars are environment friendly since they conserve energy needed in the future.

Use of bio fuels
These are fuels derived from biomass. The great threat of oil prices has prompted use of bio fuels. America this can be a great relief from dependence in petroleum, coal and natural gas. Emissions by vehicles using bio diesels are far much less as compared to those of vehicles using diesel. Fewer emissions will reduce air pollution in America and ensure good environment. This will also reduce hydrocarbons like carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide which contribute towards global warming.

The use of bio fuels constitutes one of the ways America can ensure energy independence.

Fuel efficiency
Fuel should be used efficiently without wastage. Coal and petroleum should be used in the best way possible while avoiding wastage. This will ensure saving on current supply of the resources and also avoid unnecessary pollution caused by the gases from coal and petroleum.

Gases like carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide will greatly be reduced meaning less air pollution and reduction of global warming

Strategic petroleum reserves
America should have strategic petroleum reserves which are reserved only to be used when chronic shortage petroleum supply occurs in the world. This will ensure America is not vulnerable to acute supply of petroleum in the world.

On the other hand this will discourage unnecessary drilling of oil which has negative impact on the environment. Oil drilling is a threat to the wildlife and changes the landscape.

Accelerated research and development in solar energy and geothermal energy
These two sources of energy are renewable. Solar is in unlimited supply and not at any time in America it has gone off indefinitely. Unlike petroleum and coal, solar and geothermal energies are associated with no emissions which are harmful to the environment. Their use will greatly reduce environmental degradation.

Diplomatic strategies
America should foster to create good relations with other countries of the world. Technology sharing like solar, nuclear and wind farm technologies can be of great contribution in ensuring energy independence in America.

Hydrogen use
Hydrogen is a renewable source of energy which can be used as a substitute to petroleum and nuclear energy which poses a great threat to the environment. The development of hydrogen driven cars should be emphasized in America. Hydrogen driven generators should be developed and promoted by the government. This will greatly reduce use of non renewable resources like petroleum and coal. This will also have great contribution towards environmental conservation. Less use of petroleum and coal means less carbon emissions. Reduction in carbon emission means less environmental degradation and thus reduced global warming.

China is one of the countries which has achieved energy independence
China has intensified its research and development of renewable sources of energy far much beyond than the Europe and U.S. Freeman (2007) wrote the following

China surpassed Europe and US to win the distinction of the government making the largest investment in renewable energy. She has invested 6 billion in small hydro-electric, solar hot water and wind power. She is among the world leaders in wind energy potential. China has set renewable portfolio standards goals. She has intensified her research in hybrid electricity and hydrogen vehicles. China has also invented tax policies on vehicle with large gas guzzling engines. We may be offered soon plug-ins and all electrics made in China.
Selling of surplus solar energy has been made easier in china through reduction of metering taxes. (p.136)
Another country the Americans have an example to learn from is Israel. The efforts by Israel government to harness electric power from saline solar ponds and streams have contributed towards Israel energy independence.

The time lag towards achieving energy independence
America is not too far away from attaining energy independence. To start with America harbors great resources in terms energy generating resources. America is the world number three producer of petroleum. It also has coal and natural gas in addition to petroleum. The America nuclear technology is far much developed as compared to other economies. The economy can be able to finance great research into development of more and advanced renewable energy sources. With a plan to chart the way forward then within few years, energy dependence by American economy will be a thing of past.

Conclusion
Despite being endowed with great resources America has continued to depend on other countries for supply of energy. This is a happening that all efforts should be gathered to do away with. Previous presidential aspirants have promised to deal with this situation when given mandate but up to date little has been done towards achieving energy independence. What we need in America is more investment by the government towards promotion of renewable energy. Encouragement of research entailing energy, efficient use of energy and elimination of energy wastage should be intensified.

Reducing Greenhouse Gases May Not Be Enough to Slow Climate Change
Website sciencedaily.com
URL  httpwww.sciencedaily.comreleases200911091111083055.htm

Part One New Article Review
The article Reducing Greenhouse Gases May Not Be Enough to Slow Climate Change talks about the need to broaden the management options being used to address the problem of climate change by moving a step higher beyond reducing greenhouse gases.   Since mid 20th century, about 50 of the global warming experienced in the Unite States has resulted from land use practices such as forest clearing for cities establishment and crops farming (Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009).  Indeed, major cities such as Atlanta are warming up at twice the planet warming rate a consideration that makes the current cap and trade reduction programs to be insufficient in addressing the problem.

To comprehensively address the problem of global warming, the article considers slowing the current rates of forest loss and re-forestation.  Unlike other global warming strategies, preventing the green loss effect has an added cooling effect besides absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.  In the cities, the author emphasizes on green architecture strategies such as use of green rooftops and reflective materials to complement other cap and emission trading programs.

This article provides a critical point of view with expanded consideration of factual information in drawing the authors assertion.  Therefore it is unbiased.  It highlights information on the past trends of global warming and its relation to land-use practices.  Most importantly, it does not disapprove the current cap and trade strategies, but emphasizes on complementary mechanisms towards achieving the same goal of reducing the green house gases in the atmosphere.  Besides, it outlines the added advantage of minimizing the green loss effect on cooling the global temperatures especially in the major cities.  The author further indicates the need to simultaneously consider both the urban strategies and out of city forestry mechanisms.  

I agree with the authors conclusion that the problem of global warming can only be addressed effectively when employed strategies take a more expanded outlook.  With major towns rate of global warming being twice the global warming rate and harboring larger population in the nation, the implications are very severe and special consideration is indeed very crucial.  I further consider this conclusion to be crucial in that it creates an integrated focus for all.  It calls for a revitalized policy evaluation while empowering the local authorities in effecting the whole plan.  However, to further increate the ability of addressing the problem of global warming, local communities should further be incorporated in effecting the alternative strategies suggested in this articles.  However, will the policy makers will see the urgency presented in this article

Part Two Discussion
The assessment of global warming reduction strategies and the critical need for alternative expanded strategies presents the real picture of the climate change problem. This article therefore provides the missing link in the efforts to holistically address the problem. Higher warming rates in major towns compared to the global rates creates the need for revitalization of the current cap and trade strategies. Besides, providing workable solutions, the timing of the article was further likely to make greater impact to the Copenhagen international community climate change meeting in December 2009.  The idea would therefore be easily further relayed to the local communities.

However, reducing the green loss effect might conflict with the demand to increase food production because land is often cleared for agricultural purposes.  Besides, the emphasis for green architecture in cities will demand use of special architectural designs and materials which might be very costly.  However, these problems can be addressed through further establishment of supportive policies.

With the negative implications of global warming intensifying day after day due to inappropriate strategies employed to address them, the following questions still persist.  Are the policy makers committed towards addressing global warming Will the international community see the sense presented in this article on expanded strategies towards addressing the problem of global warming How can the expanded strategies concept be incorporated on a global scale  

Work One Discussion
Could generating energy from waste be the answer
Website Website sciencedaily.com
URL httpwww.sciencedaily.comreleases201001100125150645.htm

I agree with the reviewers assessment because it clearly brings out the controversy emerging from bio fuels and food production.   The assessment effectively links the urgency of addressing the problem and provides the needed hope from the current research work on the possibility of using wastes to produce energy.  This article is very relevant because it emphasizes on the need to address the energy problem while proactively avoiding creating further food deficits (ScienceDaily, 2010).  It particularly invokes great hope to readers by indicating that previous small projects have been successful and further provides a strategic step by step implementation outline.

Notably, though using wastes as opposed to plants for energy production is presented as a major solution in the article, its application will be hard to effect as far as the forces of the market keep food prices lower compared to those of bio-fuels.   It might be particularly hard to enforce in developing countries due to their poor legislative frameworks.

While application of this technology has the ability to unlock the current energy problems, the following questions still persist.  Is the new technology easily available and affordable to the local communities especially in the developing world  Do nations have the necessary goodwill to use waste as their energy sources

Work Two Discussion
Biodiesel as an Alternate Fuel
Website www.enn.com
URL httpwww.enn.compollutionarticle41004

I am in agreement with the reviewers assessment of the article biodiesel as an alternate fuel in that it effectively brings out the prevailing emphasis of alternative energy sources in the society to address the problems posted by global fossil fuels.  The review invokes readers understanding of the multiple applications that biodiesel can be put to with high effectively.  This article is very crucial in that apart from providing biodiesel as an immediate best alternative, it further informs the reader about its application.  It brings out the efficacy of strategic reduction of fossil fuels by increasing biodiesel in variant percentages such as 20 (B20), 50 (B50) and 100 (B10).  Therefore, it creates a possibility of a smooth transition.  With the example of Enterprise Holdings projecting immense reduction of about 420,000 gallons of diesel in its first year of applying bio-diesel, other companies will easily consider its application in their operations (Soos, 2010).

Though biodiesel is indeed the way to go in light of the emerging fluctuations and finite nature of the fossil fuels, its overall sustainability will be wanting in that it requires large tracks of land for mass production.  It will further present a major conflict with food crops production mainly due to the high prices of biodiesel products compared to food products.

While there is no doubt of the large potential presented in using bio-diesel, how will countries especially the developing one s balance between food and biodiesel production  What alternative resources can be used to create the same biodiesel without reverting back to fossil fuels and negatively affecting food production.