WHAT ARE WET LANDS THE ROLE OF NATURAL WETLANDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

I. Introduction

When you think of wetlands, what come to your mind are the frogs, ponds, lilies and moss. However, its importance and role encompasses a large scope that we all need to know and find out about. Wetlands play very important role in the regulation of river flow, in filtering pollutants and fertilizers, in offering spawning zone for some fish, and for providing a home for some plants, insects, batrachians and birds. Wetlands are a great help in our environment as they play a big part in the cycle of our ecosystem. However, since we have been experiencing a lot of environmental changes, the wetlands likewise are affected. They influence the livelihoods of several communities supplying water, peat, wood, grazing, crops and, locally, aesthetic, cultural, recreational, nature preservation and instructive advantages. In the past, lots of these lands were appreciated only for their capability to be transformed to other uses in the course of drainage and forestation. At present, their advantages are better valued. Enhanced environmental management emphasizes ways of transporting improved benefits from these lands to all stakeholders and of reducing their possible negative impacts owing to climatic productions of greenhouse gases, hydrological changes and sediment discharge. There are a lot of definitions about wetlands although mostly they provide the same common denominators.

II. Wetland Definitions

A.   Three National Definitions
National Wetlands, as the word implies, are regions where water is present on either the whole year round or at a particular time of the year, the area is covered with water, particularly at some point in the growing season. A number of our most important and fruitful wetlands only gets wet seasonally. Wetlands are a significant link between the land and water and are fruitful as rain forests and coral reef ecosystems (Weber State University n.d.).

National Wetlands are distinctive setting in which the soil is waterlogged for all or most of the year. Frequently, wetlands contain pools of standing water for much of the year, and all wetlands swarm a massive amount of plant and animal species that have modified to their distinctive environment. Wetlands are an exceptionally important natural resource besides presenting habitat for plants and animals they also help care for nearby land, and lessen soil erosion (Smith 2010).

National Wetlands are amongst the most efficient and fruitful ecosystems in the world, akin to rain forests and coral reefs.  HYPERLINK httpwww.epa.govOWOWwetlandsvitalepa_mediafood_web.gif An enormous variety of species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish, and mammals are portion of the wetland ecosystem. Climate, topology, geology, and the movement and the great quantity of water also known as the physical and chemical features help in determining the kind of plant or animal inhabits a particular wetland. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2009).

B. Three International Definitions
An international definition for wetlands is lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. (Dini et al 1998)

An international definition for wetlands in Africa is permanently flooded lands lying below the deepwater boundary of wetlands. They include environments where surface water is permanent and often deep, so that water, rather than air, is the principal medium within which the dominant organisms live, whether or not they are attached to the substrate. (Dini et al 1998)

International Wetlands are the ecotones or intermediary zones between lasting aquatic and dry earthly ecosystems.  HYPERLINK httpwww.ramsar.org t _blank Ramsar Convention has defined wetlands as areas of marsh, fen , peat land or water, either inherent or synthetic , stable or unstable with water that is stagnant or streaming , fresh, briny or salty, together with areas of marine water the deepness of which at low tide does not go beyond six meters (Wetlands of India 2010).

C. Table of Similarities and Differences
Wetland LocationImportant ResourceMentions HabitatsWet Year RoundArea Between Water and Dry LandMoving or Non Moving WaterFresh, Briny, Salty, or MarineNationalXXXXXInternationalXXXX

III. Mangroves

A. Description of mangrove vegetation
A mangrove is a woody plant or plant community that lives between the sea and the land in regions submerged by tides. Therefore, a mangrove is a type as well as a centre of population of plants. The species may vary into a tree, shrub or palm which shares the capacity to live in salt water. Grey mangroves scientifically known as Avicennia marina is Australias most widespread mangrove species and is said to be a tough mangrove because of its capacity to deeply set its strong peg roots into newly emerged mud banks and their ability to endure low temperatures and a range of other inter tidal situations. Mangrove apple or the Sonneratia Alba frequently grows in this region too. Mangrove populations are accompanied by several different pasture grasses Buffel, Aleman, Hymenachne, Misssion, and Para. A couple of other shade and fodder trees can also be found among the mangroves Prickly acacia and Mesquite. (The State of Queensland, Department of Environment and Resource Management, 2009).

B. Geographical distribution of Mangroves
Local, well established stands of mangroves can be found along the coastline of Kimberley in Western Australia. These mangrove communities have gone, mainly, undisturbed. The high humidity and temperature fluctuations provide a low risk of fire to surrounding areas. The groups of mangroves in SE Australia are located in sheltered bays and estuaries thus offering protection from storm damage to the surrounding areas (McKenzie  Rolfe 1996).

The national interior transgression of mangroves into the estuaries of south-east Australia over the last five decades is occurring in a variety of geographical locations. This transgression could be due to increases in rainfall, clearing of areas for agriculture, altered tidal regimes, water levels, or increases in nutrients and sedimentation (Saintilan  Williams 1999).

On an international level, the U.S. has lost roughly 50 of wetland acreage due to the reformation of millions of acres of wetlands into farms, cities, and roads. South-east United States contains the largest concentration of Mangroves in North Americs.(Indiana Department of Environmental Management, n.d.).

C. Hydrology for the mangroves.
Tests performed by the National Wetlands Research Center concluded that mangroves in areas of high tidal fluctuation experience greater growth than those in static water (Howard  Mendelssohn 2000).

D. Other environmental requirements
Field and greenhouse experiments performed by the National Wetlands Research Center in South Florida, show that salinity has a smaller effect on the growth of the mangrove than hydrologic conditions do. Hydrological requirements for mangroves are the tidal cycle that keeps soils saturated. These studies showed the degree that hydrologic fluctuations and substrate quality enhance mangrove growth and survival (Howard  Mendelssohn 2000).

In my opinion, according to these studies the tallest, strongest mangroves would be found in coastal areas where the water levels fluctuate on a daily basis. Coastal areas would also be less susceptible to drought that inland areas would be.

E. Environmental role  values  benefits
Ecological The significance of ecological functions is hydraulic transfers, water storage, biogeochemical transformations, primary productivity, decomposition, and habitat. Studies have shown that any excessive utilization or removal of elements will adversely alter the wetland ecosystem (Weis 2008).

Hydrological The hydrological significance pertains to the comparison between natural wetlands and manmade wetlands. Hydrological studies showed that manmade wetlands were wetter and for longer periods. The manmade sites had large components of open water. Most naturally occurring mainstream floodplain wetlands are vegetated with very little open water (Weis 2008).

Social Wetlands have great socio-cultural value, even though this aspect is just starting to be explored. Researchers are discovering that many wetlands in the world have religious and historical values for many of their surrounding communities. For example some wetlands in Australia are sites for ceremonies, hunting, and gathering activities. In some parts of the world, regional wetlands are used for initiation rites ceremonies. Studies conducted by Ramsar showed that at least 30 of the worlds wetlands have significant value in regards to archaeological, historical, cultural, religious, mythical, and artisticcreative significance to the communities around them (SAEFL 2004).

Economic The economic values of wetlands have been proven to be substantial. The many would wide studies of wetlands has concluded the need for more sustainable management of the worlds wetlands. The results of these studies have proven to society their immense economical value thus pronouncing the importance of wetland preservation and wise allocation of the natural resources (SAEFL 2004).

Wetlands provide a livelihood for local people thus a main source of income for many indigenous populations. They also provide timber and firewood which are one of lifes basic needs for survival. Food for humans and animals from the fisheries and marine life help to feed many otherwise starving populations. Wetlands provide sources of natural dyes as well as recreational and medicinal values. (Mazda, Wolanski,  Ridd, n.d.).

F.  Potential threats
American mangroves are home to many endangered species. Hundreds of bird species in America rely on mangroves for feeding, nesting, foraging, and roosting. Not only do mangroves provide habitats for the species that live there, they provide educational and recreational benefits for humans (Gavnish et al 2008).

There are a lot of threats to the mangroves survival among them are the sewage and fertilizer contamination to the water. The huge demand for seaside hotels in coastal cities is endangering the existence of mangroves. Many think of wetlands as swamps and are considered to be places of many potential dangers and considered to be useless (Mazda, Wolanski,  Ridd, n.d.).

Many of the worlds mangroves are being threatened by industrial pollution and urban spread out. In addition, contamination from pesticides, agricultural chemicals and industrial effluents are becoming major threats. Environmental stress is also one of the killers of mangrove areas. Charcoal and timber industries has also taken their toll on the chance for survival Not to mention the charcoal and timber industries have also harshly affected wetland forests. Tourism and other coastal improvements have played heavy roles in the depletion of the natural resources that are unique to the worlds mangroves. (Mazda, Wolanski,  Ridd, n.d.).

Everywhere mangrove forests have been emptied and the number of coastal fisheries has significantly dropped. Many economically essential fish species strictly use wetland marshes for reproduction practices. The loss of their breeding ground can easily result in the extinction of those species. The loss of coast wetland forests also endangers the humans and wildlife that live in the area. When mangrove vegetation is depleted, the inhabitants of the area become threatened by natural disasters due to the loss of their shelter (Mazda, Wolanski,  Ridd, n.d.).

Beginning to be realized is the climate changes in direct relation to the depletion of the worlds wetland masses. Changes in the ecosystem of the mangroves can eventually change the climate and the levels of pollution in the atmosphere from their current levels to unliveable conditions. Wetlands act as natural air filters for many pollutants and the moisture is a major factor for regional climate. It should be stressed, at this point, that climate is an extremely vital component in the survival to any ecosystem (SAEFL 2004).

G. Conservationprotection policies andor management options
It is indeed prominent that the destruction of some of the worlds most vital resources is alarming. For many centuries, people have taken for granted the importance of these ecosystems to our environment and thought more of the expansion and advancement opportunities that arise following the destruction of these swampland areas. It is recently that people are beginning to realize the destruction of these ecosystems is why natural disasters are more prevalent now than ever before. For this reason, people are finally becoming concerned with the restoration and conservation of global wetlands (Gattenlohner et al 2007).

In some countries, people are attempting several methods to be able to conserve and restore the wetland ecosystems. Some have started planting native plant species according to the compatibility to the region. However, these futile attempts are considered too little, too late and much more needs to be done towards restoration. (Gattenlohner et al 2007).

There are few, if any, laws that are specific to the conservation and preservation of wetlands. This is because the conservation of wetlands would entail all major wetlands in many countries. The laws required for this type of massive conservation efforts would require the cooperation of all the countries to which it pertains (Veltman 1995).

Up until the 1970s, wetlands were considered to be wastelands and in the mid-1800s, Congress enacted several federal laws that promoted the destruction of wetlands (Veltman 1995). Because of the lack of legislation on this, some groups are taking matters into their own hands. One group of people that are dedicated to preserving the wetlands and the species that live or migrate there is the Ramsar Convention on wetlands of international importance. This convention is composed of 52 contracted parties who have three main objectives (Navid 1989). Their current objectives are
A requirement to include wetland conservation considerations within national resources planning.
The promotion of the conservation of wetlands through the establishment of nature reserves.
The designation of wetlands for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance for which specific conservation duties apply.

The members of the Ramsar Convention have also, recently taken steps to strengthen the administrative provisions of the convention. The Ramsar Convention has made great strides towards their goals since 1987 (Navid 1989).

Wetland species extinction is extremely vulnerable due to the fact that wetlands typically occur in discrete areas where the numbers of a species are dense and isolated. Interference with the wetland ecosystem can cause changes to the shape, size and dispersion of the area. These types of quick changes can easily cause a species to die quickly (Gibbs 2000).

Mangroves alongside with the abiotic setting adjoining it build up a unique ecological unit that is dispersed in the coastal areas identified as the Mangrove Ecosystem. Along with coral reefs and tropical rainforests, it is the most fruitful ecosystem on earth. They are a varied environment that is rich in livelihood resources and have straight impact on the populace dwelling in mangrove areas. Mangrove ecosystems have conventionally been sustainable controlled by local residents for the making of food, medicines, tannins, fuel lumber, and production materials. For many native coastal inhabitants, mangrove forests present reliable, basic income and maintain their customary customs (Mazda, Wolanski,  Ridd, n.d.).

Mangroves provide livelihood for local people thus as source of income for many indigenous population, it also provides timber and firewood which are one of the basic needs for survival, auxiliary food for humans and animals, provide food for fisheries  and marine life, source of natural dyes, recreational and medicinal values. Evidently, the existence of mangroves is a great help to people especially those living in the coastal areas and are in dire need of livelihood resource. A lot of people benefit from the mangroves that are why the propagation and reproduction needs to be taken care of otherwise these people will suffer a great loss since they are the primary beneficiaries of mangrove wetlands. The benefits it offers to other people are equally important especially in terms of protection from natural disasters (Mazda, Wolanski,  Ridd, n.d.).

IV. Conclusion
It is indeed important that we know the importance of wetlands and not only how it is defined locally and internationally because it plays a very important role in our environment. It protects our homes from floods because it soaks up and slowly releases floodwaters. Because wetlands act like sponges, it helps in lowering the flood heights while slowing down the flow of water down the streams and rivers. Moreover, wetlands control soil erosions especially along rivers, lakes and streams wherein the soil is held in place while absorbing the energy of waves and buffering strong currents (Gavnish et al 2008).

In addition, wetlands serve as home to wildlife animals. Many of the endangered species in America only lives in wetlands and thus to enable them to survive they need wetlands. But if we continuously transform wetlands into other forms of constructions, later on these animals would become extinct. Hundreds of bird species rely on wetlands for feeding, nesting, foraging and roosting. In addition to their valuable contribution to the habitats and species that live in their ecosystem, wetlands also provide educational benefits as well as recreation and aesthetics to people (Gavnish et al 2008).
Review  Europe finds Clean Energy in Trash, but US lags
Denmark has found a new energy source from its garbage and its now covering 20 of daily household energy consumption.  The new waste-to-energy plants or what were known previously as incinerators are now being credited for this change.  Apart from cutting energy costs, among the benefits in using waste-to-energy plants are 1) diminished use of landfills 2) lesser carbon dioxide emissions 3) emissions to the air and water are lessened due to scrubbers and filters 4) income from extracted acids and 5) lesser exposure to toxic materials as they are concentrated and handled with care.  Of the nations total garbage, only 34 is incinerated and the rest are recycled.  At present, Denmark has 29 waste-to-energy facilities nationwide, with 10 more upcoming.  Europe now has a total of about 400 such plants and a lot more are underway which is in compliance with their environmental commitment as per the European Union.  The US is said to be reluctant to the building of any waste-to-energy plant because of the abundance of cheap landfills across the country, the so-called priority for zero waste, and the negative connotation associated with incinerators.

The resistance to change is a typical reaction to new ideas, innovations and technology.  Change is nonetheless inevitable and the issues pertaining to garbage in relation to the environment need to be addressed at the soonest time.  The government should initiate re-education of the citizenry as regards these issues since they are pressing concerns and not merely fabricated ones.  Each and everyone should be mobilized and made aware that these issues affect every member of the community, and that a passive attitude  like, I will just stay here and watch them do it -- would not be acceptable at this point in time.  

Review  A Call for Hong Kong to Clean the Air
Said to be Asias financial hub, Hong Kong is starting to earn yet another title  as one of the countries with the most polluted air.  The financial executives themselves are starting to complain about the issue as pollution levels went up to a record high in March this year.  This has caused more people to stay indoors, and the cancellation of most if not all outdoor activities.  The elevated awareness on the issue has given environmental activists more hope that an action will finally be made.  External sources are said to be the culprit -- smoke from factories in neighboring Chinese province of Guangdong, from cargo vessels passing through, and the recent sandstorm which happened at about the same time.  Local environmentalists however counter this claim since, according to them, there are numerous local sources which should take the blame for this occurrence.  Although government officials have vowed to take drastic steps to ensure cleaner air, environmentalists are not convinced.  Meanwhile, as the situation drags on, companies have started having difficulty in recruitment partly due to the environmental issues in this widely-acclaimed business district.

The issue of air pollution is another essential concern that requires prompt attention since whether the air is clean or not, each person has to breathe.  Each individual needs air.  One may be able to delay the consumption of food, but breathing, he cannot.  Whats worse is inhaling air that is polluted.  When ingested into the body, polluted air can cause respiratory problems, and worse, toxic air may cause harmful side-effects, the damage of which one can only imagine.  Re-education is also needed in this aspect as the task of making the environment a more suitable one -- for the present generation and the generations to come -- is not only expected from the government, but from each one of us.  More hands will produce more output so a collective effort will redound to more benefits, and a better environment in the offing.

911 Health and Environmental Issues
Eight and a half years after the ill-fated World Trade Center destruction on Sept. 11, 2001, environmental and health issues have come to fore, as the rescue and clean-up workers who assisted in the cleaning of the debris complained of incurring asthma, sarcoidosis and other respiratory illnesses.  Almost 10,000 workers have filed lawsuits against 90 government agencies and private entities.   The workers contended that they were not sufficiently protected from the health hazards posed by the contaminants in the debris.  The contaminants consisted of smoke, dust and ash which may have affected the volunteers who worked in the 16-acre location at that time.  An emerging medical consensus came to conclude that those who worked for longer hours in the area had the greater risk of getting sick.  Thus, the amount of 657.5 Million has been earmarked for the settlement claims which will follow the procedures done in the Victim Compensation Fund for the families of 911 victims.

The destruction of the World Trade Center has brought with it a lot of shock and devastation, on a worldwide scale, and now these issues come up.  It took two long years for the city officials to decide to make the settlement to the workers.  Although the issue is supposed to be an old one and is supposed to have been a settled concern by now, some of the affected workers are still processing their respective complaints and assessing their health conditions.  Although local officials argue that the city government should not be held liable for the health damage to the workers, the latters claims have sufficient basis since they incurred the illness in the line of duty.  In like manner, the government should provide assistance to the workers as part of their commitment to uphold the welfare of the citizenry above all other concerns.  It is not just the monetary consideration which is important here but the moral and ethical principles involved concerning the issue.

Review  Mercury in Tuna
Following the discovery in 1970 by Bruce McDuffie of canned tuna having mercury levels way above the standards set by the federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the US government made a recall of more than a million canned tuna products from the market.  It is said that mercury is an element naturally found in fish, but the bigger ones like albacore and bluefin tuna have the highest levels in their tissues.  The FDAs previous standard of hazardous level of mercury in fish was set at 0 to 0.5 parts per million, which in 1979 was raised to 0.5 to 1.0 parts per million.  Fishing entrepreneurs have disputed the federal warnings and limitations on tuna consumption saying that mercury is not considered a health hazard.  This argument is contradicted by findings at the National Academy of Sciences which state that methylmercury causes neurological and learning problems in children.  By 2004, the FDA and the EPA gave a restricted diet recommendation of 12 ounces of tuna in a week for children and pregnant women.

The studies on mercury in tuna are contradicting since Harvard School of Public Health says that the benefits of eating fish overshadow the supposed toxins.  Conversely, the Federal Institute of Medicine continued to warn against the adverse effects of mercury in unmonitored amounts.

The benefits of eating fish to follow a low-fat diet should now be taken with a grain of salt.  These days when people are more conscious of what they eat, fish is considered a healthy option.  But steps should be taken to ensure that the fish one consumes is safe especially pertaining to children, pregnant women and even lactating mothers.  As the article avers that the chemical mercury stays in the body, and thus accumulates through time, we cannot really be sure what its harmful effects may be once it reaches a certain level, or what effects it may have on the body on a long-term basis.  More studies should be done to address this issue so that everyone may be made aware of the consequences of having a possible high-risk mercury-tainted diet.

Review  Study says Overuse Threatens Gains from Modified Crops
The use of genetically engineered crops has been beneficial to farmers since its introduction in 1996.  Genetically engineered crops although much expensive, requires lower production costs, yields more harvest, offers more convenience and needs lesser chemical spraying, and hence is generally more favorable in the long run.  However, overuse of the technology is starting to backfire as weeds are becoming resistant to the herbicide being used.  The issue now requires national attention as more than 80 of US crops like soybeans, cotton and corn are genetically engineered.  The US is said to be the first to use this technology on a large scale basis, although it has also been adopted in Latin America and in some Asian countries.  Although the rapid adoption by a majority of farmers is believed to be synonymous to the viability of the practice, critics say that increase in production has been negligible, and this has resulted to more dependence on pesticides.  Farmers are now starting to question the practicality of using biotechnology, which has prompted capitalists to lower the prices of seeds used in planting.

Controversial though it may have been, the genetically engineered crops have now become regular fare to a majority of US farmers especially when it comes to soybeans, cotton and corn  which accounts for more than 80 of total harvested crops in the US.  Initially, the idea of modifying genes in crops was met with a huge uproar what with the lack of tests done as regards the safety of these crops yield.  Up until now, there are still no significant tests to prove that genetically engineered crops are safe for human consumption.  However, most have now turned a blind eye towards this issue maybe because of the extra convenience and economic gains that have come with this new technology.  Acceptance nevertheless does not necessarily denote safety, and so this question continues to jeopardize everyones health and well-being.

Review  The Struggle of Farming a Land Where Normal Has Lost Its Meaning
Last year, Kenya experienced the worst drought in their country which necessitated 4 million in food aid for a 10 million population facing starvation.  The climate changes have affected much of its arid to semi-arid climate, and the situation seems bleak as, sources say, temperatures are expected to rise further.  Sakai, a town in Kenya, however, has been able to bear the hard times with a small budget for a pilot-program sponsored by the UN.  Different varieties of seeds are used parallel to the season and amount of rainfall when they are planted.  From corn, farmers have also learned to plant other crops like peas and beans which are more drought-tolerant.  Small loans were also granted to start businesses which were not farm-based.  Dams have also been constructed to ensure adequate supply of drinking water for the villagers.  Another plan which is underway is the construction of irrigation systems for the farms.  This being done, Kenyas leaders believe that the predominantly upheld notion of farming practices based on rain-dependency will be gradually eliminated.  Food security and a reduction of rural poverty are thus ensured.

The situation in Kenya is pitiful and so unfortunate but it cant be helped since their country is in a location which is currently one of the worst affected by climate change.  In as much as most people would be helpless regarding their situation, the best that one could do is to do whatever heshe can in hisher own backyard, be aware of what is happening, contribute whatever you can, do greening practices, try to live healthy and be healthy.  Dispose of your trash in the most earth-friendly way, recycle whenever possible and be conscious of whats toxic or not.  Prayers for their nation can also help.  Being thankful and optimistic can also do much.  Lastly, being vigilant about making the earth a safe place to live in should be deemed the most important.      

Solid Wastes and Landfills Future Needs

Nowadays, solid wastes have gained interest of people. It is seem to be perceived as one of the major future problems. The planning, implementation and coordination of solid wastes is reeling and tottering. Figures show that the amount of wastes produced with in the New York city daily is twenty two thousand tons and seven million tons yearly. These figures are expected to increase at a pace of four to six percent annually mere because of the industrial development, modern conveniences and increased consumer buying. A budget of about one hundred and seventy to one hundred and eighty dollars is needed to collect and dispose solid wastes. In other words huge spending is needed to now and in future to satisfy people by providing them with a clean and healthy environment. An impeding problem confronted today is the deterioration of ways for disposing off waste products. (McDougall et al, 57)

The results of a research survey conducted from China, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand show that currently, about seven thousand tons of wastes are discarded through incineration and about sixteen thousand tons through landfill. Although, there are many plans for using more incinerators, however, there seem no plans for the development of landfill areas in the city. In the coming few years the solid waste products are expected to increase to about seven tons daily. Effective management of this could only be done by shifting it in the suburbs of the city.  (World bank, 25)

Solid wastes may be defined as discarded solids arising from animal or human life and activities. Besides certain natural solids like leaves and snow etc are also included in it. Initiatives and public interest towards the eradication of solid wastes came with the internal desire to live in a clean and healthy environment. Community pays very little attention to the solution of solid waste problems.  It is necessary for a community to take into consideration that how should it resolve the solid waste problem. A survey conducted by world bank in 1999 shows that these days rather than rural area the cities of Asian countries are responsible for creating about eight million tones of municipal solid waste on daily basis. It was found in the survey that the humidity of waste in the Asia has a high ration of about 60-70. This has lead to the attainment of a minimum calorific value 4,000-5, 8000 KJkg. Estimates show that currently about fourteen thousand people work in the Department of Sanitation. About eighty percent of these are concerned with performing the duties of street cleaning and collections of waste materials form streets these employees are called uniformed station men. (Warith, 10)

The process of the transferring of solid wastes starts from their collection. Firstly, solid wastes are collected from the residential and public areas. In New youre about one thousand two hundred trucks are used for the purpose. This process is practiced for six days in a week. This collection is necessary for cleaning the streets and renewal of snow. After the collection of wastes the second step is the disposal of solid wastes. This is a very crucial process. This process is performed through two methods that is incinerators and Landfills (Warith, 10)

Mustafa defined Incinerators usage aggravates the fortuities to health and environment. This is because it involves certain industrial wastes chemicals, organics and building material. Incinerators are hubs for rodents and vermin. A survey was conducted to find out the composition of Landfills under his supervision and it was found that in India and Thailand about 70-90 of Landfills are composed of open areas where solid wastes are dumpedAhn et all in 2002 stated that about 25 of Landfills are responsible for the excretion of anthropogenic methane emission and about 20 of the entire global anthropogenic methane emission.

The third step of the waste transferring process is Landfills. Landfills are also known as final resting place of solid wastes. These are usually operated through few people because they are surrounded by many hazards. They are perfumed with dust and scanty smell. The roads near the landfills consist of furrow and groove which makes the driving risky and perilous. Automobiles usually get slip over it. Landfills attract rodents, sea gulls and pigeons. These animals bring certain viruses and bacteria with them for example Salmonella and Histoplasma.  These are also heat sensitive and are easily set to fire. (McDougall et al, 58)

Surveys conducted by WHO in 2002 showed that Landfills are fire sensitive and it frequently erupts in them. It is necessary to initiate new plans and modify the existing facilities for disposing off long range environment and health effects. Getting rid of certain dangerous and perilous chemicals dumped in the landfills is necessary. Dumping of such chemicals in the landfills must be stopped. Health risks to those working on Landfills, sanitation through ground water and the risks involved in the future usage of Landfills affects the healthy environment and cause long lasting affects on human health. (Mostafa Warith, 10)

The job of disposing off solid wastes is a highly risky profession. Yet very scarce knowledge and guidelines prevails in it. It is therefore necessary to undertake certain precautions. Some of these are as follow. Safety education courses must me taught to every one from the top level to the operational level. The tools used by the sanitation workers must be designed and measured on the engineering standpoint to assist them work in their capacity. The working conditions must be assessed regarding the hazards and risks it involves. the basic work procedures of solid waste disposal must be changed to hasten mechanization and containerization. Solid wastes must be tested in order to evaluate community and work exposures to organisms and chemicals in terms of biological effect. (Warith, 15)

Survey conducted by National Geography in 2002shows that Landfills are considered by majority to consist of fast-food packaging, polystyrene foam and disposable diapers. Estimates show that most of the people think that about seventy five percent of  landfills are comprised of twenty to thirty percent of fast-food packaging, thirty to forty percent of polystyrene foam and twenty five to forty five percent of disposable diapers. However one can not take these as accurate measures. The real estimates can only be assessed through the processes of sorting garbage. A survey conducted in 1973 showed that people are disposing of large amount of beef. America is believed to be facing worlds largest crises of solid waste management and eradication. At least seventy percent of its solid wastes are being dug in to landfills. It has about five thousand five hundred landfills scattered at different areas. (Warith, 15)

With the arrival of 20th century the number of solid wastes greatly increased. This affected world economy at an unexpected level. Although, different methods have been invented to get rid of solid wastes, yet landfills are considered to be one of the most possible way of discarding and reducing solid wastes. Development of landfills have turned problematic due to it high investment needs,  the opposition of the community of the account of preserving environment from the odors, dust and furrows caused in the vicinity of the landfills. Disposal of wastes via landfills must be prohibited because large area is needed for it. But with the urbanization of the world the land has become a precious resource so it should be preserved rather than used for the purpose of landfills. (Leao et al, 4)

With the increase of solid wastes and the demand for its proper management certain legislation and regulations are invented or put into practice to provide proper guidelines for managing wastes. Consequently, certain techniques have also been introduced for disposing waste material. Reduction of waste production, increase in waste recovery and reduction in the use of landfills are the foundations followed during proper waste management. Presently, different methods are being applied around the world to mange solid wastes. Yet it is true that none in the world has succeeded in the proper management of wastes. Countries are still optimistic that they will achieve there aim of reducing their waste production however the truth is that their optimism doesnt seems to be realizing. A survey conducted by World Bank in 1999 showed that the per capita generation waste is also increasing, particularly in developing countries. It is necessary to use new methods for disposing of wastes however it seems that these are largely disposed off via landfills.  (Leao et al, 4)

Management of solid wastes is also very necessary. It is necessary to find out certain systems containing acceptable and accurate amalgamation of activities relating to solid wastes. The most usual of these activities are landfill, incineration, recycling and composting. According to the model developed by Chang the reduction of net present value of costs minus benefits are needed for appropriately managing the solid waste containing area and the capacity it has. Daskalopoulos suggested the technological utilization for the management and cure of wastes in the circles of economic and environmental criteria. (Simone Leao et al, Pg 5)

The United Nations Conference on Environmental Development ended with an emphasis on reducing waste production and increasing the recycling and reusing of solid waste. Up till now different models have been developed for the proper management of solid wastes however Landfills are considered to be the most potential and optimum method of disposing of solid wastes. (Leao et al, 10)
It is a question of great importance to how government controls and manages the excessive solid wastes produced by the industries nowadays. Previously the actions adopted to dispose off solid wastes have resulted in great aggression among the public as well as have badly affected the society. People are demanding the use of modern and up to date technology to collect process and dispose off solid wastes. Landfills are turning out to be another problem in the provision of healthy and fresh environment to the society. Previously landfills were built to serve as a method less expensive and with in budget to dispose off solid wastes. Unfortunately, it did not turn out quit effective and was responsible for causing unhealthy environment. (Campbell, 2)

Landfills are necessary and important for the disposal of waste material unless certain models are implemented for the reusing and recycling of waste products. Societal assessment done by Environmental Protection Agency of  the United States show that in 2000 about two hundred and sixteen million tons wastes were produced in Us every year. This shows that solid waste production is taking place at a faster pace as compare to the population. (Campbell, 3)

Studies show that strategies necessary to install a solid waste material management plan must be based upon these Wastes must be collected and disposed off in an appropriate composition. The areas which are considered to serve as landfills in future must be predicted. The tools and equipments important for the development and functioning of recycling centre must be noted. (Campbell, 3)
It is very much important to properly manage solid wastes if these are not properly managed this large quantity solid wastes will greatly effect the environment and the human health. This an important issues to be resolve being currently faced by the society. It is the biggest problem or issue to be resolved by those concerned with the profession of managing wastes nowadays. pollutants in the waste materials can affect both environment and health by amalgamating in the water under the land. ( Campbell, 4)

WHO in its report revealed that Landfills are responsible for certain chemical reactions as a consequence of which certain chemicals dissolve in the water which is injurious to health. Currently, to avoid such infiltration of water landfills are planned in such a way that the purification of ground water is easily monitored and controlled. In this way public is providing with clean and uncontaminated water. To avoid violent outburst of landfills it is necessary to control methane gas. (Campbell, 5)

It is produced in high quantity during the disintegrating and decaying of solid wastes. This gas is responsible for causing certain violent outburst of fire at the landfill will destroy the surrounding crops of landfills. Similarly, the security of those working on the landfills is also a matter of attention. Working at landfills is hazardous to so it is necessary for the government to minimize this risk. Appropriate management of landfills is also necessary any kind of sterility or shabby operation at the landfill can cause bad smell, environmental pollution which will offend the public resulting in their aggression. (Campbell, 6)

The estimates of World Bank show that in 1999 about eight million tones of solid waste materials were produced in Asian countries. Mostly, these wastes were disposed off by openly discarding them. The important task of managing waste is not appropriately conducted in the developing countries. Solid wastes are collected only from one portion of the city a very large portion of the city wastes remain neglected. An inquiry and examination conducted among variety of institutes in Asia revealed that proper management of landfills can be gained through the under scored methods. To rehabilitate the dumping placearea is the best choice. A case study was conducted in this regard and it showed that the process of recycling and disposing off solid waste material is now working satisfactorily. The application of western way of solid waste management plans do not turn fruitful in Asian countries. This is merely because they cannot afford the manufacturing of luxurious containment Landfills. The wastes of developed countries consist of recyclables and lower biodegradable organic wastes however those of developing countries consist of coal and wood. These are mostly utilized for cooking and heating. (Visvanathan et al, 2)

An inquiry and examination conducted among variety of institutes in Asia revealed that proper management of landfills can be gained through the under scored methods. To rehabilitate the dumping placearea is the best choice. It will help in rehabilitating the open dumps via landfill mining where resource recovery might serve as a source of energy, recycle and reuse of metals, plastic and glass wares, use of compost as fertilizer for agriculture and as a cover material for future landfills. This rehabilitation of dumping place will help in the reestablishment of an engineered landfill. Using aerobic and anaerobic for treating solid wastes before their arrival to the landfill also assist in reducing the quantity of disposable waste. Moreover these treatments will also reduce leach ate treatment, gas management, and geotechnical problem of landfill settlements. Therefore, it is suggested that properly trained and experienced workers must perform the operations of landfills. (Visvanathan et al, Pg 3-4)

Wetland Field Trip

Based on our trip, answer the following questions. (10pts)

1. Who owns the Rose Lake wetland and how does the public use it

Jefferson County owns the area. Rose Lake wetland is owned and governed by the state. Last 2006, it has been designated as a State Natural Area. Most people usually go to state natural areas for outdoor recreational purposes. For Rose Lake wetland, the public could do various activities in this land such as biking, hiking, fishing, and even cross-county skiing which is only allowed after January 1st.  However, bike trails are still not established in the area but it will be developed sometime in the future. And because of the diversity of the habitat present in Rose Lake Wetland, people could also see various wildlife species such as mammals, birds and plants.

2. What ecological services do wetlands provide for us

Wetlands are also considered to be the most productive ecosystems comparable to rainforests and coral reefs. A wetland ecosystem consists of variety of species of plants, insects, reptiles, birds, fish, mammals, and a lot more. It can also be called as a biological supermarket since they provide large volumes of food which in turn attracts many animal species. Wetlands is composed of shallow water rich with high levels of nutrients which is very ideal for the growth of various organisms that mainly forms the base of a food web. During migration and breeding, wetlands provide shelter, food and water for many species of birds.  And more importantly, it helps mitigate global climate conditions by storing carbon in the plants and soil located within in a wetland instead of releasing it to the atmosphere.

3.How have people viewed wetlands in the past  Is that changing

In the past, wetlands around the world have been destroyed only to provide space for farming. People have unconsciously considered wetlands to be problems that are in need of solution. But with global warming, people have realized that draining wetlands hastens climate change. And as the whole world is facing probably its greatest environmental problem, peoples points of view are slowly changing. Countries today put more emphasis and importance on our environment especially on wetlands for it plays a key role in adjusting water volumes of our rivers.

4.What is unique about wetland soils

Soils in wetlands are nutrient rich and its pH is most of the time neutral leading to a great quantity of plant and animal life. Wetland soils are very rich and diverse which encourages growth of different life forms.

5.Name 2 producers and 2 consumers that you saw at the marsh.  What organisms are likely to be there that you didnt see

Some of the producers that I saw at the marsh are the Illinois pondweed (Potamogeton illinoensis) and Blue-joint grass (Calamagrostis Canadensis). Aside from that, I have also observed some consumers which are black-crowned night-heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) and great blue heron (Ardea herodias). However, I didnt see any fireflies and spiders all throughout my stay at the area.

6.What is non-point pollution  Why is it so difficult to control

Nonpoint source pollution (NPS) is a kind of water pollution that comes from different sources. It is caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving through the ground which gradually picks up and carries natural and man-made pollutants. These pollutants are then delivered and deposited to the rivers, lakes, ground waters, and to other bodies of waters.  Being reported as the leading cause of water quality problems in many countries, nonpoint source pollution is very hard to control because it comes from multiple locations. The flow and type of pollutants the water contains also varies overtime which adds up to the difficulty of pointing the true source of the pollution.

7.What is the purpose of the Tollgate wetlands and in general, how does it accomplish this purpose

Generally, a Tollgate wetlands purpose is to provide and manage an affordable and natural way to clean storm water. On a brief explanation, water coming from the district flows into an artificially created and maintained wetland specifically designed to naturally clean the districts storm water.

8.Specifically, what types of physical features have they incorporated into the wetlands to accomplish the purpose you described above.

When it rains, Tollgate wetlands operate by capturing water by an intricate web of storm sewers and lilly-laden holding ponds. Large portion of this water comes from nonpoint source pollution from the community thats why maintenance of the wetland is needed. And because of this, various native plants are landscaped throughout the area each has a specific role to play in protecting the water quality.

Environmental Justice in Maquiladoras

Maquiladora is a name given to a group of manufacturing plants that are located on the Mexican border. Maquiladoras workers have been exposed to poor working conditions and the environment is very hazardous exposing them to health risk factors. As the owners of the factories continue to take advantage of the workers, the government is slow in the implementation of the environmental laws which renders the maquiladoras workers helpless. Some organizations have come up with strategies to assist the workers though the issues are very complicated.

1.0 Back ground
The border between Mexico and United States has been exposed to unhealthy conditions for the last 30 years. It covers 2,000 miles area and it has become a breeding site for infectious diseases according to American Medical Association (Brown, 2000). There are more than 3,000 production plants known as the maquiladoras which are located along the Mexican border which definitely are the cause of these misfortunes to the border (Blackman, 2004). Most of the factories are owned by Americans and their work is to assemble export products to U.S. markets. In 1965, a Mexican maquiladora program was established which formed a free trade agreement for manufacturing materials to be brought in to the country by the foreign countries. The main objective of the agreement was to offer cities on the northern Mexico with good job market and give cheap labor to the foreign manufactures. Although the residents along the Mexican border are offered great number of job opportunities by the maquiladoras, It is very unfortunate that it is at the expense of job insecurity, low wages, poor working environment with increased exposure to toxic wastes. In 1993, Canadian, U.S., and Mexican governments established NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement). This agreement was to assist in the elimination of problems facing the border which are as result of the ongoing free trade zone. The agreement was also important for it was meant to assist in improvement of the working environment, implementation of environmental laws and reduce the high population of maquiladoras along the Mexican border. Two years down the line, NAFTA had not achieved its intended missions. On the contrary, there was a 20 increase in the maquiladora work force. The high concentration of the maquiladoras along the border did not decrease. The agreement failed further since improper disposal of toxic wastes from the foreign owned plants increased.  Initially, the maquiladora program required that all waste materials be returned back to the country of origin but NAFTA gave them the opportunity to retain all the imported materials together with the waste materials in the country (Brown, 2000).

1.1 Problem
Below is a map of Mexico- U.S. Border (Blackman, 2004)
The problem is categorised into three sections, that is, working conditions, environment and effects of maquiladoras to U.S.

There are about 948,658 Mexicans that work in the factories. This population has to withstand the poor working conditions that consist of insufficient training and information, exposure to dangerous materials and lack of protective equipments. In a study conducted in Tijuana and Tecante in Mexico by Comite de Apoyo Fronterizo Obero Regional, it had workers from 77 maquiladoras describe their experiences. The results showed that one fifth of those interviewed believed to have had illnesses as a result of poor working conditions. Workers who had not acquired any hard copy form of information from their employers about the dangers of different equipments and materials used in the work place totalled to 53. 40 claimed not to have gotten sponserd training by their employers about the different safety measures. The maquiladoras represented in the study 40 had no safety commission which is a requirement by the Mexican law. These results indicated that the employers were ignorant of the safety of their workers which is very inhuman (Blackman, 2004).

Hazardous environment within the factories is a major threat to the workers. The border location is one of the most polluted sites in Mexico which is believed to be caused by the high concentration of maquiladoras, unimplemented Mexican environmental laws and inadequate proper waste storage and treatment facilities. Some of the factories are closed down due to environmental issues but those actions add no value to the environment   since the factories continue to pollute the environment. For instance, there is a lead-smelting plant in Tijuana known as Metales y Derivados which was closed down back in 1994 for it had no proper disposal facilities for toxic materials but it is a surprise that even up to date the untreated waste still leaks through the containers which finds its way to the communitys water supply hence it is a great threat to the health status of the people. Moreover, air pollution along the border is increasing and the residents endure daily high air pollutant levels such as carbon monoxide. The factories effluents channelled to water bodies such as rivers is causing deterioration of water quality. For instance, Rio Grande River has become a dump site for toxic waste which is poisoning wildlife and people living along the river and it is also a risk factor to Hepatitis A.
The maquiladoras along the Mexican border are causing industrial damage on the United States border. The factories in the Mexican border cities generate air and water pollution which crosses the border into the United States. In some cities like San Diego, El Paso, and CA the air pollution has gone beyond the U.S. optimal air quality standards.  Mexico and United States experience birth defects problem. The first study that indicated that maquiladora workers got babies with low birth weight compaired to women working in different industries was done in 1994. More surveys are being conducted such as the study of Brownsville by public health officers where there were incidences of anencephaly with babies born without some parts or all of their brains (Brown, 2000). These defects are believed to be caused by exposure to toxic chemicals emitted by the maquiladoras.

1.2 Demographics
The Mexican borderlands are inhabited by low income working households. The wages gained by the Mexican maquiladora workers is not enough to cater for their daily bread hence no coin is left for savings (Hall, 1998).  The wages earned for equal work in the U.S. and Mexico is different. The lowest wage earned in Mexico is 3.40 per day while in U.S. is 5.75 per hour. The Mexican government has increased the minimum wage earned by 14 but the consumption price index has also increased up to 18.6. In Mexico, an average worker gets a total net pay of 55.77 per week and the average expenditure totals 54.00. The employers in the borderlands are really exploiting woman and child labor. Female maquiladoras workers are about 60 whereby most of them are less than 20 years old. It is noted that women and children are paid 30 less wages than males doing comparable work. In Mexico, young people at the age of 16 are allowed to work hence there are increased forged documents that allow young children of 12 years to get jobs in the maquiladoras (Blackman, 2004).

Purchasing Power Parity (Mexican-U.S. Wage Gap)

(United States. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2005)

(Hanson, 1999)    

1.3 Key contacts
There are several key contacts in Mexico that are concerned with environmental justice in maquiladoras. First we have Mexican Governmental Agencies that consist of IMSS (Social Security Institute), STPS (Secretary of Labor and Social Welfare) and SSA (Department of Health). These agencies are concerned with assistance to formulate and enforce laws regarding maquiladora labor force. However, the agencies have failed to respond to the various worker complaints. Secondly, the large foreign corporations are key contacts.  Some of them which are found along the Mexican border are -Ford, Mattel, Honda, Sony, IBM, GM, Fischer Price, and Xerox. The corporations imports raw materials to Mexico whereby assembling is done in maquiladoras. These corporations usually benefit from the cheap labor from Mexican citizens and enjoy the unimplemented environmental laws.

The third key contact is the maquiladora safety and Health support Network which consists of more than 400 safety and occupational professionals from Canada, Mexico, and the United States (Brown, 2000). It is a volunteer network that was founded 1993 in a conference of the APHA (American Public Health Association) and offers information and assistance concerning the maquiladoras. EHC (Environmental Health Coalition) is a key contact which is an organization at the grassroots and is committed to prevent and offer proper disposal of toxic waste and contaminated sites. The organization has promoted the communities and workers rights to be informed about dangerous chemicals used in maquiladoras that have been facilitated by formation of environmental justice campaign along the border. NACEC (North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation) is another key contact that comprises of Canada, Mexico and United States. It has three sections the council which is formed by environmental officials from each country, Joint Public Advisory Committee formed by five appointed government officials from each country who give advice to the council and the Secretariat which is formed by professional staff who conduct surveys and work with peoples petitions. The last key contact is a non profit organization known as Comit Ciudadano Pro Restauraci n del ca n del Padre. It is formed by more than 25,000 families in Mexican who range between lower to middle class and led by its president, Maurilio Pachuca Sanchez. It aims at organizing communities in order to promote workers rights and offer more knowledge hence the communities can participate in political processes. Currently, the organization is focussing on providing seminars on health risks and issues of maquiladora workers. It is also concerned with clean up of one of the abandoned lead smelter factory known as Metales y Derivado (Blackman, 2000).

1.4 Stakeholders
Different stakeholders in Mexico have impacted on the environmental justice through public policy decision making which rely on a wide range of peoples  and organizations inputs and ideas which are contributed by government agencies, maquiladora owners, human rights commissions and environmental organizations, leaders of trade unions and investors (Brown, 2000). The maquiladora workers are the grassroots activists who are concerned with the implementation of the environmental laws by the government. In order to achieve their missions, they are empowered through organizing groups and access to education. The Mexican government participates through regulation and enforcement of the environmental laws though it has greatly failed in the implementation whereby the maquiladora does not comply with environmental laws and nothing is done about it.

1.5 Strategies
Several strategies must be put in place which will ensure that environmental justice is achieved. These strategies include

Organization of groups and communities. The maquiladoras is affecting such a large number of people in the border towns , thus,  a way of organizing groups into a stronger force that can establish a more effective campaign should be sought. One of the groups was founded in year 1980 known as Comit Ciudadano Pro Restauraci n del Padre which has successfully grouped 23 communities together in the fight against the maquiladoras (Brown, 2000). The organization has assisted the closure of two plants which did not adhere to the environmental laws through organization of community outreach. The plants were large lead smelters known as Alco Pacifico and Metales y Derivados.

The second strategy is filing petitions. Mexican citizens can file a petition against the offending party through the NACEC which is a better way for the citizens to speak out against environmental pollution. In the year 1998, such a petition was filed that was regarding the disposal of the 5,400 tons of toxic materials which was remaining after the closure of Metales y Derivados in 1994 (Sutter, 1998). That petition is currently been analysed by the NACEC. This strategy has limitations whereby the process is long and very complex which needs several considerations of the submission by the secretariat and the offending cooperation to have a chance to give comments on the situation hence it needs unlimited period of time for it to be accomplished. The system has got another issue of not giving an opportunity to the filling individuals to question the offending partys stand on the matter or allow them to participate directly in the process. It is very unfortunate that even if the offending party is proved guilty, there is no environmental law that will force the party to adhere to environmental standards. These makes the citizens to hope that one day in time, a better government will be there to impose justice. Nevertheless, the petition process remains to be an effective method which brings a problem to attention.

The third strategy is to file a complaint with the Mexican government agencies though it is least effective in the struggle for workers rights. Two years are now over after workers in Valle Harmoso and Matamorows in Mexico tried to get the Mexican STPS (Secretary of Labor and Social Welfare) to authorize the inspection of the factories. They are complaining about exposure to toxic chemicals, failure to be trained on the environmental and work related health issues, and failure of the factories to adhere to the environmental laws.

Another strategy is to support and help maquiladora workers. An organization known as La Casa de la Mujer-Grupo Factor X is committed to offer information to the maquiladora workers and more so cares for women. Lastly, there is establishment of Fair Trade Stores as an effective strategy. The residents should avoid purchasing products manufactured by maquiladora owning factories. There are so many fair trade stores available in Mexico which assures equal opportunities, reduced child labor, and gender equality.

1.6 Solutions
The problems caused by maquiladoras to the residents living on the both side of the border are so many and very complicated, thus, there is no single concrete solution which can be formulated. The factors that contribute to problems associated with environmental justice are so many and include - policy issues, compliance issues, legal issues, advanced technology issues, financial issues and socio-cultural issues among others. The solution to these issues is formulation and proper implementation of environmental laws.

1.7 Recommendations
My recommendations focus on the suggestions and opinions given by groups and people that participate on the border campaign. First, there are four recommendations given by EHC through BEJC (Border Environmental Justice Campaign) which assist in the improvement of the border situation.  The right to have information whereby workers should be informed on the dangers they are exposed to in the workplace. Amendments of NAFTA regulations which protect the environment and maquiladora workers whereby nowadays are weak and less implemented. The amendments of the agreement will ensure improved safety and health of the workers. It is recommended that the workers should have the right to be directly involved in the management of the factories, though it will be a disadvantage to the involved workers whereby they cannot speak out against the poor working conditions for fear of being sacked and may be blacklisted from other companies. BEJC advises the industries and government to allow public participation in decision making on issues affecting everyone. The last recommendation made by EHC is that of proper Toxic waste disposal whereby all the toxic materials abandoned on the closed factories such as Metales y Derivados should be cleaned up (Brown, 2000). The challenge to the implementation of the recommended actions is that, the Mexican environmental laws are not taken serious hence the Government should first address its weaknesses on the reinforcement of the laws.

PFEA (Proyecto Fronterizo de Educacion Ambiential) is a non profit making organization based in, Mexico and is concerned with border environmental issues. The organization recommends that trainings and educational opportunities for workers is important in solving the border problem. The organization has been in the front line in helping in the amendments of environmental policy. The recommendations will be significant in the improvement of the working conditions and empowerment of the workers but for real action to be taken the company management should be involved. Therefore the organization should not sideline the inputs of the concerned companies in the initial stages. However, the companies are very ignorant of the welfare of its workers due to the neglected environmental laws.

Other recommendations are made by Lori Salda, the former chairperson of the City of San Diegos Wetlands Advisory Board. She emphasizes on the seriousness of enforcement of Mexican environmental laws and also encourages the maquiladora owners to make investments on northern Mexico and form funding programs to better the conditions along the border.

International law is recommended whereby it will regulate the multinational corporations labor practices which will force them to meet their international and domestic obligations hence improve the working conditions. It will also meet the Mexican governments and Mexican workers goals by sustaining high human rights standards which will not compromise foreign investment and economic development (Robert, 2000). The Mexican government should therefore understand that, not only international law will solve the problem, but also the domestic environmental laws which are very significant in the protection of her citizens.

In summary, the stakeholders recommend for more applied study on health risks and critical environmental injustice issues in the border and integrate advanced knowledge into advocacy and conflict resolution tools. Mentorship programs should be implemented especially that addresses environmental and occupational health protection policies with practical experience, moral conviction and data be laid before the stakeholders such as government officials, company officials and worker representatives.

The Risks Gas Drilling Poses to the Environment

There are various dangers caused by gas drilling to the environment. One of these problems includes the toxic chemicals that are released to the environment which can otherwise result to death of animals, plants and even humans (Environment Ohio, 2009). The toxic chemicals that may pose dangers are primarily used in the extraction process. These chemicals usually contaminate the water in the streams which when taken by humans, they may cause health complications.

It is a normal process of injection of toxic chemicals into the ground in order to create cracks or fractures which may allow the flow of the natural gas swiftly to the surface (Melus, 2010). In the process, toxic substances are forced that are already underground into the drinking water used by humans and animals.

It has also been suggested that some of the heavily pollutants loaded fluids drillers actually remain underground and this may also result into the contamination of the main water supplies (Melus, 2010). Fluids that are recovered by the drillers have a potential of contaminating the water as well, these recovered fluids are always stores in the open-air-pits that have a propensity to flood or leak (Environment Ohio, 2009). At the same time, the recovered fluids can overwhelm the local facilities for water treatment.

The machines used in gas drilling are usually driven by burning of fossil fuels such as diesel, which contributed to greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. This has the impact of global warming, which results to climate change (Melus, 2010).

In general, gas drilling is one of the economic activities that can be beneficial to humans when used in a sustainable manner. Tools and methods should be sought which are environmental friendly and which care for human health.

Science and Technology as Origins of Despotism

Introduction
Human beings relationship with nature is an important and highly problematic philosophical issue. The progress of science served as a destructive stimulus which through technological innovations forced human race to realize its potential for the satisfaction of human needs and desires. These motivations and impulses resulted in technological, social, political, and industrial transformations which taken together constitute what is usually meant by the mastery over nature. Traditional religious dogmas and scientism are directly related to this transformation in the human power to make the best use of natural environment in the everyday world. There, of course, appeared many unpleasant and negative effects of scientific and technological progress. Actually, destructive human control of nature has become a real problem. The following pages of this essay will be concerned primarily with the analysis of how the destructive relationship between humans and the rest of nature have evolved over time through scientism and how science and technology relate to the social and cultural conflicts which arise out of this despotic relationship.

Main Body
There are many myths and legends in different cultures in which one can find the contradictory emotions of horror and desire which people had towards the tools invented by men to improve daily work and life. Such stories are discussed and analyzed in a book by Mircea Eliade, The Forge and the Crucible (1962). The author demonstrates that in various ancient cultures all over the world there is a constant characteristic which Eliade describes as the sacredness of metal and consequently the ambivalent, eccentric and mysterious character of all mining and metallurgical operations (pp. 99-100). The creation and production of instruments out of various kinds of metal had magical or divine meanings from the very beginnings of human civilisation. Moreover, men who worked with metal were always regarded as people with extraordinary skills and who practised magic because they supposedly possessed the magic formulas that empowered them to produce things which were supernatural. People had very contradictory emotions in this regard. On the one hand, they felt the power and independence in their activity and had the attitude of mastery over nature that is conquered by the use of tools. On the other hand, people had fears that these metal tools possess demonic power and, therefore, religious ceremonies were required in order to appease the spirits and to make the tools more like natural elements by means of which people could change the natural environment to satisfy their needs. In fact, this inner desire and dread which characterize mankinds earliest experiences with technological innovations continue to be present today. People feel a kind of fatalism in relation to science and technology. While people gratefully accept the benefits of human ingenious devices, they also fear the outburst of uncontrollable social conflicts and environmental problems which result from technological advances.

In one of his lectures, the historian Lynn White (1968) made the statement that the present increasing disruption of the global environment is the product of a dynamic technology and science which. . . cannot be understood historically apart from distinctive attitudes toward nature which are deeply grounded in Christian dogma (p. 93). Like many other researchers in this field, he tried to demonstrate that a religious attitude towards nature and supernatural power of humans was received by modern Western civilisation from its predecessors. Moreover, this attitude had been directly related to the growing scientific and technological progress in Western civilization and to a great extent had determined the way in which this progress was put to practical use in the service of humanitys needs and desires. Thus, as White suggests, the origin of the todays environmental crisis is religious in nature. Moreover, change of religious views, rather than technological inventions which would improve present conditions, should be accomplished to solve the growing problems of modern civilisation.

A prevailing characteristic of the religions that were practiced by the ancient civilisation was the belief that all elements of natural environment which surrounded people had spirits. Therefore, nature and its spirits had to be honoured in order to protect humans from harm and evil. Before taking natural objects for ones own use man had to placate the spirits by preparing gifts and organising sacred rituals. The Christian religion, nevertheless, had quite the opposite attitude. For Christians, spirit was detached from nature and, moreover, it controlled nature they also believed that to some degree humans inherited Gods mastery over nature. Only men and women had spirit, and thus people did not have to be afraid of the powers of nature. In this way, it seems the Bible suggested that the planet Earth was created to be in the service of people and their desires. In this regard, White makes conclusion that by destroying pagan animism, Christianity made it possible to exploit nature in a mood of indifference to the feelings of natural objects (p. 86).

Taking into account above conclusions, it seems that White has determined a central aspect of the destructive relationship between humans and nature. Besides the mythical roots discussed in the beginning, religious elements inherited from the early religious formations constitute a main source for studying the origin of mastery over nature. According to White, up to the eighteenth century all influential scientists also worked on religious problems and concerns. It is logical to conclude, therefore, that their concerns with God, his designs, and will influenced their ideas of the significance of scientific and industrial movement towards rationalism. Scientists inherited Christian position toward natural resources which was grounded on certain Christian teachings about a humans role in the creation of the world and which had guided Christianitys victory over pagan beliefs that natural objects and the universe itself have spirits, desires, and intentions.

The role of Christian religion in making the foundation for the idea to master the Earth is clearly seen in the Book of Genesis. Here one can see how attitudes towards nature have been shaped. The creation story in the Book of Genesis declares the supreme and unrestricted power of God over the universe and the right of human beings to have control over all animals on the earth. Ideas found in the Book of Genesis indicate the possession of absolute power as the foundation of humanity, and it is absolute power which in essence separates human beings from other living creatures on the earth In the idea of a covenant between man and lower creation, man is distinguished not by the possession of spiritual faculties, but by being lord of the universe under God, Who is Supreme Lord. For man does not rule over the animal kingdom because he is Gods image rather, he is Gods image precisely because he rules over the animal kingdom, thus sharing Gods universal dominion (Asselin, 1954, pp. 281-283).
It is particularly interesting how the Book of Genesis interpreted the Fall in relation to mans power on earth. The existence of animals living independently of man was considered as a sign that there had been a partial loss of power to control because of human sin. It is explained by the fact that the Book of Genesis indicates a man had power over all animals in the Garden of Eden and animals obeyed mans commands. The taming or killing of all wild animals would be an indication that the earthly paradise had been reconstructed to its original condition. The stories which recount the deeds of the early saints who went into the wild areas all tell about their success in subduing wild animals as evidence that they were returning the inherent human supreme power which they enjoyed before the Fall (Glacken, 1976, pp. 310, 349). In this way, the powerful Christian tradition generated a deep-rooted image of a human being as master of nature founded on the Biblical story of creation of the world and man.

The revolutionary changes in philosophy of human life and finding of new concepts in physics and chemistry also produced considerable transformation in opinions and ideas. Particularly, progress in the sciences of nature was thought to improve the quality of human life. This considerable change is associated with the fruitful work and achievements of the alchemists, in particular the advocates of Paracelsus. Their point of view and bold ideas ultimately inspired the scientific efforts of those seventeenth- and eighteenth-century scientists who prepared the solid ground for modern natural science. The Renaissance influence obviously introduced and reinforced the idea that an exact science of nature can be understood in mathematical terms. The Englishman John Dee, a great mathematician who all his life applied his mind to the learning and understanding of magic in order to find the secrets of nature, represents one of the best examples of a philosopher and scientist caught in this extending trend.

What makes the achievements of alchemists directly relevant to the present study is the fact that the alchemists search for the secrets of nature has become the driving force of the modern science. In his study of alchemists work, Jung (1983) says that alchemy was the dawn of the scientific age, when the daemon of the scientific spirit compelled the forces of nature to serve man to an extent that had never been known before. Jung also claims that the psychic sources of the will to gain control of the nature can be easily found in the alchemical documents. In the same manner, Eliade (2001) makes an argument that the concepts of industrial progress and the mastery of nature by means of science and technology were found and consolidated in the nineteenth century and became the heart of todays social ideology. It is in the specific dogma of the nineteenth century, Eliade observes, according to which mans true mission is to transform and improve upon Nature and become her master, that we must look for the authentic continuation of the alchemists dream. Therefore, Eliade believes that the alchemists anticipated what is in fact the essence of the ideology of the modern world (Jung, 1983, 172-174 and Lewis, 2001, pp. 52-53).

Based on the alchemists findings, early in the seventeenth century Bacon and Descartes became to work on the possibility of creating a completely new method to lead scientific investigation. The supporters of this idea were considered by their contemporaries to be the individuals who spoke by divine inspiration and who advocated a new age for humankind, claiming that by accepting this novel method humans would become masters of nature. Bacon and Descartes formula included two distinct ideas first, the new scientific investigation would allow to explore natural phenomena in a much superior way to what was done earlier second, the fruits of this approach also would include tremendous social benefits  in particular, a constantly growing supply of material goods and a general liberation of the human mind from irrational beliefs. Eventually, that would enable people to have total control over their desires and attain their mutual desires faster and more efficiently (Wartofsky, 1969, p. 51).

In this manner, the rationality of the new system of scientific methods and principles was regarded as an effective force capable of improving the social environment. More and more people believed that this rationality would spread in ever wider spheres of human life and thereby achieve a better condition for social life. This message of rationality is nicely summarized in the following statement The hope is that scientific knowledge, as the mode of adaptation and of human control over nature, may also be a major instrument of human self-control, by means of rational intelligence (Wartofsky, 1969, p. 29). This is a precise statement of a belief which has been polished during the last three centuries and which has remained a central element of thought in todays Western civilization.
The destructive mastery over nature developed even further when the welfare-state machine and the ideological bodies of capitalism and socialism promised material abundance to all people. Economic systems of modern Western world tried to prove that a constant rise in the citizens standard of living could be achieved. For all, the route to this goal was the same which consisted of industrialization and the extremely growing extraction and wasteful exploitation of natural resources.

Now people begin to understand that this road leads to nowhere. Rising level of wasteful consumption in the industrialized countries is intrinsically self-destructive process and it cannot succeed. Destructive process of delivery of goods and services to the developed and industrialized world and then to the developing countries have become a real threat to the continued vitality of the biosphere on the planet. Actually, there is no real chance that the human race in the future would be able to obtain the material standard of living which is today enjoyed by most people in industrialized countries. And if people make attempt to achieve this goal by means of scientific and technological mastery over nature, these attempts will fail and will lead to even worse crisis. People already live in the century of global environmental crisis. Further catastrophic environmental degradation will make this crisis to humans as an inevitable fate. When people comprehend and consider this fate in their minds, as intelligent observers of the whole human history, and not as careless consumers, they will begin by rejecting the idea of mastery over natural environment which came to them from their predecessors.

Conclusion
Rooted in religion, the Renaissance conceptions of science, capitalism and socialism with their scientific and technological innovations, the idea of the mastery of nature presents extreme difficulties and problems to the modern society. It is true that people are indebted to technical skills for the sufficiency of material provisions and the various technological innovations which increased mankinds happiness and well-being. But, at the same time, everyone can clearly see how the mastery of nature and careless exploitation of its rich resources has produced many kinds of destructive consequences, which eventually can lead to the destruction of an entire civilization.

Position on Bottled Water

Bottled  water  is  the  most  self-motivated  market  of  the  food  and  beverage  industry  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  limited  to  one  single  product.  There  are  three  principal  types  of  bottled  water  that  can  be  recognized,  namely,  natural  mineral  water,  spring  water,  and  purified  water  (Ferrier  2001).  The  bottled  water  industry  is  considered  to  be  quite  energetic  as  a  number  of  bottled  water  companies  compete  on  this  market.  Even  though,  they  can  be  dissimilar  in  a  number  of  ways.  It  is  somewhat  possible  to  recognize  them  as  a  result  of  the  categories  those  companies  fall  into.  The  world  bottled  water  market  delineates  an  annual  volume  of  89  billion  liters  which  is  approximated  to  hold  a  worth  of  22  billion of the US (Ferrier  2001).  Moreover,  Western  Europeans  comprise  of  the  worlds  principal  bottled  water  consumers. However,  Asia  and  the  Pacific  represent  themselves  as  the  most  capable  market-places,  with  an  annual  increment  of  more  than  7  per  cent  every  year.  Strikingly,  the  standard  consumption  of  bottled  water  all  over  the  world  has  increased  by  7  per  cent  on  an  annual  basis,  where  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  world  market  is  regulated  by  local  participants  (Ferrier  2001).    Bottled water has developed into a very enveloping global business.  Moreover,  the  consumption  of  bottled  water  is  consistently  increasing  at  a  swift  pace,  chiefly,  in  nations  where  clean  and  drinkable  tap  water  is  accessible  at  negligible  price.  As  a  result,  we  will  discuss  various  elite  meanings  and  interpretations  of  bottled  water  along  with  the  kinds  of  consumer  restraints  that  go  up  against  bottled  water  as  a  commodity.  The  distinction  between  tap  water  as  well  as  bottled  water  can  be  construed  as  a  manifestation  of  a  challenge  for  authority  and  public  trust  amidst  governments  and  organizations,  with  a  strong  reference  to  the  sensitive  curiosities  and  nervousness  with  regards  to  risk  and  health  (Wilk  2006).  Also,  increased  urbanization  which  has  caused  tap  water  quality  to  recede  can  explain  this  circumstance  in  particular.  Precisely  speaking,  natural  mineral  water  cannot  be  treated  or  supplemented  by  any  constituent,  and  hence,  is  perceived  as  natural  by  those  dwelling  in  towns  and  cities  seeking  authenticity  in  their  consumption.

Bottled Water vs. Tap Water
Bottled  water  consumption  manifests  a  particular  way  of  life  as  this  has  reached  every  segment  of  the  world.  At  many  instances,  bottled  water  is  considered  as  an  alternative  to  tap  water  as  consumers  believe  it  has  a  better  taste,  and  hence,  it  is  observed  as  safer  and  of  a  better  quality.  Even  though  it  is  considered  as  pure  and  safe,  it  is  not  always  the  case.  Health  and  well-being  are  consumers  most  preferred  objectives  as  bottled  water  makes  them  feel  well,  and  is  a  good  alternative  to  lose  weight.  It is a healthy substitute to other beverages.  We  all  believe  that  safe  drinking  water  is  good  for  health.  All  the  water  that  we  drink  is  derived  from  analogous  sources  such  as  rivers,  lakes,  or  from  the  sources  which  we  cannot  see,  for  example,  underground  aquifers.  In  my  opinion,  when  it  comes  to  environmental  safety,  bottled  water  industry  contributes  to  the  solution  for  it.

Bottled  water  industries  work  along  with  other  beverage  producers  as  well  as  environmental  authorities  in  order  to  create  and  encourage  the  recycling  network.  It  is  essential  for  consumers  to  be  cognizant  about  recycling,  and  have  access  to  all  the  recycling  positions  so  as  to  accumulate  all  beverage  recyclable  goods  (ABWI,  2004).  Bottled  water  is  an  alternative  to  tap  water  as  consumers  prefer  it  because of taste  of  chemicals  in  tap  water  such  as  chlorine,  which  is  brought  into  use  for  the  purification  of  tap  water.

The  most  important  thing  that  consumers  look  for  is  security,  whether  it  is  an  emerging  country,  or  a  well-equipped  one.  They  do not  seem  to  trust  their  tap  water  as  a  result  of  the  earlier  bacterial  contamination,  for  example,  and  hence,  observe  bottled  water  as  being  safer  than  that.  Taking  India  into  consideration,  the  mistrust  of  bad  tap  water  quality,  along  with  usual  deficiency  of  tap  water,  has  resulted  in  striking  deviation  towards  bottled  water  (Ferrier  2001).  In  todays  times,  natural  mineral  water  which  is  sold  in  supermarkets  does  not  come  along  with  a  medical  image.  Today,  people  prefer  to  buy  bottled  water  in  order  to  feel  well  which  is  strongly  perceived  as  a  result  of  the  response  to  advertisements  that  are  usually  based  on  comfort,  energy,  fitness,  etc.  Bottled  water  is  considered  as  a  healthy  substitute  to  other  beverages  such  as  sodas,  alcohol,  and  products  which  contain  artificial  coloring  or  sweeteners  (Ferrier  2001).  According  to  Sullivan  (1996),  bottled  water  contains  lesser  calories  and  is  perfect  for  people  who  look  forward  to  lose  weight.  This  is  one  of  the  glimmers  that  illuminated  the  bottled  water  blaze  as  a  substitute  to  fitness  trend  in  the  early  1980s  (Sullivan  1996).  Undoubtedly,  the  consumption  of  bottled  water  is  intimately  associated  with  the  way  consumers  confront  their  nourishment,  which  currently  prevalent  for  healthy  intake.  

Conclusions and Recommendations
The  quality  of  bottled  water  is  usually  good,  even  though,  there  are  chances  of  it  to  suffer  from  the  similar  contamination  hazards  as  tap  water.  The  quality  of  natural  mineral  water  is  frequently  tested  in  many  countries,  not  only  by  autonomous  laboratories,  but  also  by  the  internal  services  offered  by  companies.  However,  it  is  not  in  the  concern  for  the  bottled  water  companies  who  usually  base  their  marketing  schemes  on  the  purity  of  their  products,  so  as  to  conceal  the  occasional  and  perceptible  contamination  in  the  product.  In  order  to  make  sure  that  the  quality  of  bottled  water  is  as  good  as  asserted,  companies  fully  release  their  quality  examinations  on  a  routine  basis,  thereby,  making  them  accessible  to  a  broad  number  of  people  with  the  help  of  a  number  of  sources  (Ferrier  2001).  There  are  chances  that  tap  water  could  be  of  degraded  quality,  and  replaced  by  purified  water,  solely  for  drinking  concerns.  Still,  bottled  water  should  not  always  be  taken  into  consideration  as  a  sustainable  substitute  to  tap  water  simply  because  of  the  purified  content  in  it,  as  it  is  not  always  excused  of  occasional  infectivity  (Jungbluth  2005).  All  in  all,  international  norms  are  capable  of  facilitating  the  availability  of  bottled  water  products  by  simplifying  their  purification  processes  and  bottled  water  designations  as  a  whole.