The Clean Air Act

Climatic changes and environmental population prevention have been a thorny issue in the American nation. It is due to the importance of safeguarding the future of the world and its habitants that the congress has enacted and strived to effectively enforce the Clean Air Act. However, big polluters of the air have claimed economic concerns of the act as it is seen as a major compromise of their profits (Patton, 2001). It is nevertheless to be noted that it is the sole purpose of a government to ensure the sustainable existence of its economy as well as its citizens. This is what makes the Clean Air Act a crucial tool for ensuring sustainable economy rebuilding with clean energy thus realizing both quality public health and a reliable climate across the globe (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). This paper is written as an analysis of the clean air act and it various amendments. The author also gives personal suggestions for future amendments.
The Clean Air Act seeks to prevent air pollution as well as its control through reduction or elimination of pollutants at the source (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008). The act also seeks to reduce environmental population. All these core concerns of the Clean Air Act are defined through a set of various measures defined by the act. The first is to employ all suitable measures to ensure the protection and enhancement of quality of air resources (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). This are made to ensure sustainable promotion of public health and thus realizing reliable productivity capacity of the human community.

The second measure is the provision by the act to engage the government and its stakeholders to invest substantially in research and development programs which seek to find lasting solution to the problem of air pollution in the nation (Patton, 2001). The federal, state and local government is also dictated by the provisions of the act to provide technical and adequate financial assistance for the execution of air pollution and control programs (Patton, 200). It is to be clearly stated here that the Clean Air Act dictates for all industries to comply with its clean air and environmental pollution assurance provisions. This is because the Environmental Protection Agency has the constitutional authority to enforce the clean air act laws.

It is however to be clearly understood that the effectiveness of implementing the Clean Air Act has been marked with many challenges. It has been rightly claimed by many in the society that the Environmental Protection Agency has less legal and political influence in executing its duties. This is mainly because of the political influence that the big polluters have in the effective implementation of the laws. It is to be noted here that the ultimate intend of any investor is to maximize profits (Patton, 2001). This makes the question of environmental pollution of less concern by most of the investors. In fact this is also evidently found in the willingness of many nations to sign the global warming reduction agreements. It is indeed due to such political compromising of the laws that there have the Murkowski Amendment is in the process of been debated in the senate. This amendment will evidently compromise the efforts of the Environmental Protection Agency. It is also to be stated that the full implementation of the Clean Air Act provisions has never been realized simply because of the attacks of the big polluters and their political allies in the government (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 22010). It is thus clear that despite the many efforts by the Environmental Protection Agencies to realize clean air for the population, less success has been achieved.

The future of the human community is greatly dependent on the sustainable safety of the environment. The question of air pollution and global warming as well as climate change is a key factor to be addressed by the Clean Air Act (Patton, 2001). There is therefore need for a much consulted move to amend the clean air act to reflect the required independence of the Environmental Protection Agency in executing the law. The first suggestion is that the future amendment should giver more powers to the Environmental Protect Agencies to execute all its provisions. It has been evidently established that the Clean Air Act has many provisions which have long been ignored. This has been closely attributed to the lack of a reliable political will in executing the act. Another suggestion is that the future amendment should dictate for increased government involvement in ensuring financial and technical assistance to the development and execution of environment friendly programs. Such could not only lead to reliable air pollution prevention and control but also ensure the realization of environmental friendly production procedures at relatively maintained profitability by organizations.

In conclusion, the Clean Air Act and its various amendments is a crucial tool in realizing sustainable public health in the American society. It is however clear that most of the provisions of the act have been ignored particularly due to political and big polluters influence. This is why the author of this paper suggests the increased power and political independence of the Environmental Protection Agency in any future amendments of the Clean Air Act.

Environmental Justice Dimensions of Siting a Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Facility in Texas

Problem statement
The problem under study is the contribution of environmental injustice in favour of the white and wealthy community in the siting of the radioactive waste disposal facility in Texas (Rogers, 2004, pg 1).

Significance of the problem
Ecological studies in the United States conducted between 1978 and 1987 confirm that environmental injustice is a problem in the United States (Rogers, 2004, pg 1). Many hazardous facilities are located near the residences of minority populations. It is therefore important that scientific studies be conducted to establish the nature and degree of this inequity.

Literature used
1. Roger (2004) supports his paper with material from a wide array of journal articles and books on environmental justice and studies, and waste managements practices in the U.S. Rogers also incorporates several environment-related reports from various commissions, councils and government agencies.

Approach employed
The first task entailed a state-wide screening to identify suitable areas, and to examine potential siting areas using six-point criteria.

Potential sites were identified while locations which were least favourable were eliminated.

Studies were then conducted to eliminate sites which would be unavailable for the disposal site due to technical or legal complications.

State-owned parcels of land were then evaluated for suitability for the siting of the waste disposal facility.
Finally, the remaining potential sites were re-evaluated, a process which led to the selection of the Faskin Ranch as the most suitable.

Basic findings
The suitability of potential sites declined with coastal high-hazard, average annual rainfall, and the presence of a major aquifer.

Population density and growth lower the likelihood of siting of the waste disposal facility.

Higher household income, value of housing and percentage of college-educated residents lower the suitability of the site

The proportion of people living in poverty is positively related to the likelihood of being selected
The higher the percentage of black residents is negatively related to the likelihood of selection (Rogers, 2004, pg 8-9).

Implications
1. Environmental injustice is a problem not only in the U.S. but also in other countries. Poor and minority communities the world over suffer most from the effects of pollution and man-made hazards. The findings of the study is that the U.S. is making serious efforts towards ensuring that poor and minority communities are assured of environmental justice.

Critique
1. Even after these seemingly thorough selection process, there is still a positive relationship between poverty and the likelihood of selection of a locality for the siting of a waste disposal facility. This suggests that the process still has biases against minority communities.

Is there a Biodiversity Crisis

According to the United Nations, the world is continuously losing species around the world, which could affect every human being. This is why this year, it launched the International Year of Biodiversity. This is after eight years, when the governments promised to the rate of loss by 2010 and nothing happened. According to the United Nations, the main reason is because human cities continue to expand, as well as farming and infrastructure. Angela Merkel tasked for an establishment of a new panel to gather further scientific research on the issue (Black, 2010).

This would make it seem to us that the issue of biodiversity crisis is already very critical. According to the United Nations, as the forests and wetlands get destroyed increasingly as well as other natural systems, humanity loses the benefits and services they get from these systems for free. Our world would lose the ability to purify the air and water, and we would not be protected against extreme weather events. We would not be able to obtain our basic necessities such as shelter and clothes, because we would not be able to gather the materials needed to build these.  It can be gleaned from scientists that the world is suffering from biodiversity crisis, especially since the extinctions of species are happening 1000 times more than the nature or background rate. According to them, the Earth is in the middle of a great extinction, the 6th time to be exact, as the first five extinctions took place from impacts of asteroids (Black, 2010).

As the human population increasingly burgeon, leading to parallel increase in infrastructure built, the damaging effects to the natural world is increasing too. The human population steadily raise their technological standard of living.  The nature is being brutally exploited to make way for various blend of artificial landscapes and villages. Human cities were created, consisting of housing developments, parking lots, roads, malls and other facilities without care for the nature (Fruitarian).

The effects of these technological changes lead to severe habitat loss and fragmentation of natural areas because of bulldozing, paving, dynamiting and other sorts of aggressive activities for the sake of human endeavors, without taking into consideration their effects to the nature. Another effect of the crisis is the introduction of alien communities into the communities. The natural communities are suffering severe damages as well from human actions such as overharvesting, using pesticides and herbicides extensively, raining acids and other pollutants and altering natures way of doing things such as mixing gasses in the air, or thinning the ultraviolet radiation when the terrestrial life is dependent on this (Fruitarian).

Sometimes, the disastrous effects are so immense that entire ecosystems are destroyed, producing mal impacts to the natural processes immediately and directly, and ultimately harming the people as well. For instance, when humans stripped the forest from a watershed, an instant effect of losing flood and erosion control leads to floods and other unfortunate events. Another example is when people simplify a landscape for their own purposes, turning forests to monocultures of corn, this causes a leakier system that wastes more energy, nutrients and topsoil because these elements slip away, and the system becomes weak in fighting against pests and other natural shocks (Fruitarian)

Although we can see that the extinction of some species are getting increasingly quicker, ecologists claim that this high rate would even increase tenfold if the threatened species actually disappear in the coming century. Furthermore, as people demand for more land, food and other resources, millions of species can be extinct already even if they still have not become identified and their purposes have not yet been determined. Also, the systems that result from the biodiversity crisis, which are mostly weak and malfunctioning, are not the systems that humans can rely for a robust future (Fruitarian).

Normal people do not care what happen to nature. All they think about is that they see beautiful landscapes according to their whimsical desires and tastes. They want to see tall buildings, they want to live easier lives through technological advances, and they want a lot of things that they though nature cannot provide. Normal people act this way because most of the time, they are disengaged from the workings of the natural world, since they are almost always cloistered their nicely built homes and office buildings, with no idea what is taking place on the outside, let along the environment. Most of them do not know what the wilderness look like anymore, since they are contended with their clipped lawns and pavements, cleaned and maintained using piped water and unorganic foods. People in the modern times do not find the need to see or just do not see that they rely heavily on the sustainability of plants, animals, insects, and microbes, and the cyclical process they stimulate (Fruitarian).

Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis
The key to responding to the call for help of the biodiversity  and for our own preservation lies in recognizing the link of our survival with the survival of our nature and the different species sharing this nature with us. Plants, animals, insects and microbes must be recognized for their role in our human survival, and people must understand what their extinction means for the nature and what this means for own extinction. We must understand how each function and what their unique purposes are in contributing to the functioning of the ecosystems and we must comprehend what the consequences will be for the ecological services they provide if biodiversity continues to be threatened (Fruitarian).

Human must increase their awareness and knowledge of how the ecosystem functions and understand that this reflects the collective life activities of plants and animals, as well as microbes. Their activities and effects of their effects determine the functioning of the ecosystem.

A functioning eco system produces biological and chemical activities that characterize its type. A forest system that is functioning produces certain rates and quality of plants, carbon storage, and nutrient cycling. Once it stopped becoming functioning, all these activities would also cease or alter to different forms, to the detriment of those reliant upon these, most likely humans (Ecological Society of America, 1999).

Furthermore, humans must understand that although all organisms are important to the ecosystem, they each have their unique roles and the magnitude of their contributions to the functioning system varies as well. The species are divided into functional types based on what they can do, and what they contribute. Therefore, when thinking of how to sustain the life of biodiversity or the functioning of the system, it must be taken into consideration that other species cannot be compromised more than others, if there is not a way to maintain them all (Ecological Society of America, 1999).

Although technological and modern advances must not be curtailed, their impacts to the biodiversity system must be taken into consideration. When making changes or developments, it must be understood that some species are too important to lose, for they would affect the overall levels of ecosystem functioning. In fact, if species richness declines, so would the overall functionality of the system (Ecological Society of America, 1999).

Humans must be careful when they alter or transform the ecosystems into managed systems, they should take care not to have systems that contain only a few dominant species, when they have completely forsake the natural ecosystems that contained hundreds of species. It must be understood that at least one specie per functioning group is significant to ecosystem functioning. Humans must make sure that if there are developments or alterations to be made on the natural system or even if there are no changes to be made, that there is at least more than one of those species within the functional group. The extra may be useful for insuring against the loss of functioning during cases of disturbance, since it could compensate or replace the specie that got destroyed due to the disturbance. Moreover, to make sure that the crisis can be contained, people must increase their knowledge regarding the nature of an ecosystems response to the declining biodiversity is dependent on community composition (Ecological Society of America, 1999).

Although current research give us nothing on how to identify or predict in confidence how the loss of any particular specie can have on ecosystem process, the key to the biodiversity crisis is still to do more research and equip with normal human beings, all the knowledge just stated. This is because if they know what they are doing and what the consequences of their actions would be, they will be likely to think twice on abusing the ecosystem and biodiversity, especially if they understand the point that the survival of the nature and the species within would ultimately determine humanitys survival (Ecological Society of America, 1999).
The United Nations recognizes this solution early on. They are pursuing various ways to raise public awareness on the issue. The International Year of Biodiversity that UN decided to pursue this year presents a big opportunity for governments to do more for the cause of biodiversity. It is also something they can pursue determinedly to compensate for their failure with their plans for climate change in Copenhagen. Governments must put in their agenda how to halt the increasingly fast extinction of species.  Other organizations, most especially those with environmental causes are running special programs every year for this purpose (Black, 2010).

Environmental Citizenship

Response 1. I cannot agree with the Gaia philosophy that the Earth is an alive organism comparable to any living thing. The theory that there is an entity made up of interconnected biological systems responsible for preserving the homeostasis and balance to keep the Earth habitable or conducive to life would suggest that all species exist consciously and interconnected for Gaia. It is a beautiful theory, but I do not believe an entity such as Gaia exists. Rather, species adapt or evolve independently but contribute unconsciously to the whole stability or balance of the ecosystem. Because of my bio-centric worldview, I find the notion that the Earth is a sentient being capable of intelligence quite difficult to accept. Although I believe that both living and nonliving things have intrinsic value, the idea of Gaia suggests that human needs should adapt to the environment. To me, nonliving things exist to serve as means for the survival and development of humans. However, I believe that human beings cannot afford to be careless with the environment and have a responsibility to protect the species. I think the environmental movement has greatly contributed to educating and raising the level of consciousness and respect for the Earth.

Response 2. Although the use of advanced technology such as the Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS Net) can help in predicting drought that result to famine and consequently to hunger, illness, and mortality, this is not enough. I have experienced natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes where I come from and I must say that technology, no matter how advanced, cannot prepare the people adequately for natures wrath. This is why I am rather cynical on the idea of technology to address such threats. Moreover, what I learn about hunger in most countries in the Third World point not merely to natural causes, but more because of man-made policies and actions such as economic sanctions, poor agriculture, and bad governance. People in poor nations go hungry because their subsistence agriculture economies produce food for export, and not for the consumption of their population. The rice, grain, and crops that they grow are sold cheaply to industrialized countries while the farmers go hungry. Human society is vulnerable to natural threats that are often unavoidable but it is even more vulnerable because of man-made phenomena and economic systems that lead to hunger, violence, and death.

Hurricane Aftermath, Returning to a Workplace

Recommendations to the Incident Commander
That the above site is a potential health hazard is a fact based on the devastating events of the Hurricane. Against this backdrop, the following guidelines and recommendations would be of great help to the Incident Commander. With regard to safe entry and clean up process of the site, it would be imperative for the said commander to ensure that hisher team is absolutely sure that the Hurricane would not reoccur in the near time. The primary reason for this reconfirmation is to make sure that none of the team members as well as recovery workers is at any danger for that matter. Reliable and validated data for the same would have to be obtained from the local district meteorological department. Secondly, the commander should ensure that all the recovery staffs have the requisite protective clothing (PPE) to prevent any possibility of gas poisoning from the site. The recommended PPE for the recovery workers for such kind of an operation would be protective clothing, gas masks, helmets, and goggles.

At the same time, all the recovery workers should avoid making contact to the chlorine prone zone within the site. Also, the need to have all the required recovery equipment, resources and reasonably sufficient number of recovery staff cannot be overstated in this regard. In order to be effective and efficient, it would be appropriate to sub-divide these workers into manageable teams of about ten to 12 persons with clear cut roles and duties with respect to recovery process. It would also be necessary to allocate duties amongst recovery workers based on their skills and technical capability. The clean up would be centered on the need to control all hazards at the site. In particular, this process should focus on elimination of the chlorine gas, dusts as well other harmful building materials such as asbestos. Hazard assessments on the other hand would be done by qualified personnel to provide valid and reliable assessment data upon which hazard control would be based.

Industrial Hygiene Concerns 
One of the primary industrial concerns from the aforementioned case study is the presence of chlorine within the site having been occasioned by the reported gas leak. In this regard, it is imperative to note that the entire atmospheric zone within Baton Rouge is at great risk of air pollution. Apart from the threat of chlorine air pollution, there would be the industrial concern from dust from building rabbles or related material in addition to carbon gas from decomposing bodies or compounds within this area. Furthermore, the risk of atmospheric pollution from other unknown industrial chemical compounds such sulphur oxides can not be ruled out. Air pollution from a range of domestic aerosols is the other potential industrial concern area.
The other industrial concern within such areas as it has been put forward by Birch and Susan, (2006), is the high possibility of contamination of water by sewerage, detergents and chlorine gas due to the after shocks of the Hurricane and gas leak respectively. To add to that, this water might also contain other industrial chemicals this may be either soluble or insoluble for that matter. The flood water is also highly predisposed to contamination from asbestos that might have been used for roofing within Baton Rouge. The water within Baton Rouge is also at risk of chemical pollution from agricultural compounds both from industries and farms.

Organization of the Team
In order to be effective, the team would be sub-divided into two main categories. One of the teams would be headed by the Safety Supervisor who would also be accompanied by one of the two technicians. The other team would be headed by the Environmental Manager who would also be accompanied by the other technician. However, unlike as it shall be the case with the latter case, the other technician would be given a free roaming role which would be used to assist the second technician subject to workload as well as urgency of tests results. As a rule of the thumb, these two teams would be reporting to me to keep the channel of information flow as clear as possible during the entire recovery exercise. I on the other hand would be reporting to the Incident Commander.  In the event that some recovery workers have additional technical expertise, and then they would be selected through randomly to assist this team although it would be have to be based on the professional discretion of the Incident Commander. It should be emphasized that throughout the entire exercise, cohesion and coordination amongst the team members would be given priority.

Task Allocation within the team
The Safety Supervisor shall be charged with the task of coordinating all the recovery programmes during this exercise. In addition, heshe would be responsible for training and skill upgrading of the other team members based on the recovery programmes required at the site.  In principle, the Safety Supervisor shall act as the nerve centre for programmes coordination of the various programme activities at Baton Rouge. With this in mind, all the team members would be expected to liaise with the Safety Supervisor with regards to the various programmes for the recovery exercise. Technicians on the other hand would be tasked with the duty of collecting all the relevant samples for testing.

In particular, samples would be collected from water, soil as well air for testing in order to establish the level pollution. The Environmental Manager on the other hand shall be charged with the duty of conducting a comprehensive environmental impact assessment with particular emphasis on the hazards within this site as well as feasible mitigating measures. As it has been stated above, the Environmental Manager shall be expected to work closely with the Safety Supervisor as well as the other staff within and without the team.
PPE Requirement for the Team and Recovery Workers

As it has been argued by Asfahl and David, (2009), the importance of personal protective equipment (PPE) whilst working in the field is not only mandatory but rather crucial for safety and health of the respective field workers. Against this backdrop, all the team members as well as recovery workers shall require overalls made of hard or tough cloth material. At the same time, these overalls should be able to stay dirt proof for a considerable length of time. Footwear is the other component of PPE that be most needed at such disaster zone. The said footwear would preferably be tough leather boots that would guarantee for the safety of team members and recovery workers as they wade through the rabbles. Spotlights and pressure lamps shall also be required for any night operations or emergencies in dimly lit areas.

Synthetic but tough rubber gloves would also be required as one of the measures of enhancing everyones safety. However, technicians would be given additional surgicalmedical gloves that would be used during the collection of samples. The importance of helmets as the other PPE can not afford to be overlooked during such activities as it has been stressed by,,,,,. On a positive rejoinder, Gardiner and Malcolm, (2005), note that such helmets should also ensure for the protection of the ear as well. The other short term PPE that would be needed is the gas masks for respiratory protection. This is particularly important owing to the fact that the air within this site is considerably polluted by a conglomeration of gases in addition to Chlorine that is confirmed to have leaked. Goggles are the other PPE that would suffice for both as short term and later on during the recovery process. Furthermore, technicians would have to be provided with high visibility goggles in order to enable them to effectively collect and test the various samples. During the recovery process, the all the recovery workers would require almost all of the above PPE in addition to other specialized equipment such as infrared goggles, chemical or dust proof overalls and special lit helmets. To add to that, specialized gas masks would be required to eliminate the likelihood of workers inhaling toxic gases from the atmosphere. It would also be prudent to provide these workers at this stage with radio calls to enhance communication within and without the team in order to enhance coordination of activities as it has been suggested by Roughton and James, (2002). It would also be necessary to provide all the recovery workers with disposable foam earplugs especially for those that would be working in relatively safe but potentially risky sites. (Gardiner and Malcolm, 2005)

Testing Equipment Required by the Team
One of the testing equipment that would be required by this team shall be the portable air sampling pump. This pump is particularly useful for the collection of air samples from the various zones within the site to ascertain the types of pollutants as well the level of air pollution in general. A spectrophotometer is the other testing equipment that shall be required by this team. Portable electro chemistry, hardness analyzers, portable turbidmeters, PH sensors, Dissolved Gas and Chlorine gas analyzers in addition to the BOD sample calculators are the other testing equipment that shall be crucial for testing the safety of water within Baton Rouge. In order to ascertain the exact amount of chlorine in this site having been occasioned by the gas leak, it this team shall also require the CL17 Free Residual Chlorine gas analyzer according to Unidos, (2002)

An air particulate counter shall also be required for testing the level of atmospheric pollution from any other gas or particles. In order for any of the water or air pollution tests to be valid and reliable, it would be necessary to carry PH Buffers and standards. In addition, the team shall be expected to have a full asbestos testing kit in order to establish possibility of air pollution from the same. (Reitz, 2005)

Information Required from the Team
One of the most crucial information that I shall require from the technicians is the extent of Chlorine pollution of both the air and water supplies in the area. At the same time, these technicians shall be expected to provide information concerning any other air pollutant in terms of the amount or whether it is a potential health risk relative to the threshold levels. Hence, this shall entail the subjection to the various air samples to tests for Ammonia, Carbon Dioxide, and Sulphur concentration in relation to the Ozone concentration. With respect to water, these technicians shall be expected to provide information on the nature and extent of pollution in terms of composition of pollutants and the health risk.

The Environmental Manager on the other hand shall be required to provide information on the state of existing or prior plants and whether they conform to the environmental regulations. The manager shall also be expected to provide sufficient information on the types as well as impact of wastes. At the same time, the Safety Supervisor shall be required to provide up to date information with respect to all the programs that might be required for the recovery process alongside the possible number of workers for the same.

Delegation of Duties
As an Industrial hygienist, one the duties I would delegate would be the collection of the various samples as well as analysis of the same. This would be best done by the technicians since they are versed in IH and environmental sample collecting and testing. The Safety Supervisor would suffice as the most suitable candidate to act as the team leader. In this regard, this supervisor shall be delegated the role of coordinating the activities of the entire team. This shall provide the much needed additional time for exposure analysis within the site.

AIR POLLUTANTS

Air pollution is defined as the introduction of the biological material, particulate matter, or chemicals that have the effect of causing harm andor discomfort to living organisms including humans. The air pollution generally causes damage to the ecosystem by destroying the atmosphere. The harmful substances (pollutants) introduced into the atmosphere may either occur naturally or result from the human activities. Natural pollutants may include pollen, dust, and smoke from natural fires, salt and gaseous emissions coming from organic wastes (Len, 2009). Air pollution resulting from human activities mostly revolves around the fuel combustion in engines andor furnaces.

For the survival of the human race and other living things in the natural ecosystem, adequate measures have to be put in place to deal with air pollution. This may be through the introduction and development of clean technologies and widespread use of the renewable energy sources in almost all features of life. Investment in green energy may be used as a springboard for achieving real improvements in environmental conservation.
The objective of this paper is to look into the various aspects of air pollution and the possible negative effects of pollution on the human health, plants and animals life and the environment in general. In order to understand the subject of the paper, common types of air pollutants will be briefly discussed together with their effects. The cause and effects of global warming and ozone air depletion will also be highlighted in some sections of the paper. The paper then ends with a conclusion which suggests possible measures that could be adopted in the fight against air pollution.

Types of Air Pollutants and their Negative Effects
Generally, air pollutants are classified into two broad categories, namely, the primary and the secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are those emitted directly into the air particulates, ash and gaseous emissions, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons from volcanic eruptions, factories, vehicle exhaust fumes etc. Secondary pollutants are those produced through reactions between primary pollutants and other atmospheric compounds, e.g., ozone. Other examples of pollutants may assume both the secondary and primary manifestations especially if they may either result from direct emissions or get their derivations from ordinary primary pollutants.

Airborne Particles as Air Pollutants
These particles may either be liquid in nature or tiny fragments suspended in the air. Particles may also be primary, i.e. if they are directly emitted into the atmosphere or secondary in situations where they are formed through interactions and reactions with primary emissions. The main sources of airborne particles include dust and fumes from road transport, power generation plants, factories and dust blown into the air from construction sites. The natural sources include soil erosion by wind, volcanic eruptions, forest and desert fires, living vegetation and evaporation of sea water causing suspension of salt crystals in the air (Breuer, 1980).

Air pollutants have various negative effects upon nature including the human health. For humans, inhalation of tiny dust particles and other fumes may lead to respiratory diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, and cardiovascular disorders, among others.

Gaseous Air Pollutants
The most pronounced group of air pollutants are different kinds of gaseous pollutants, namely, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and ozone. In this case, Nitric oxide and sulfur dioxide are the examples of primary pollutants whereas the ozone gas is a secondary type. Other types of gaseous pollutants may include carbon monoxide, ammonia, persistent and volatile organic pollutants.

Air pollution is said to have a harmful impact on human health (Len, 2009). Some of the negative effects include respiratory disorders such as asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer among other diseases. The air pollutants also have a negative impact on the environment and the natural ecosystem in that it leads to destruction of animal and plant life, and also causes substantial damage to property.

Effects of Ozone gas (O3)
This is a colorless toxic gas with a pungent, irritating smell. The ozone gas resulting from human activities is a secondary pollutant since its produced by reactions of various pollutants such as hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides with the help of sunlight. Ozone in the atmosphere has got several negative effects on both the natural ecosystem and humans (including animals). Some of the health effects include vulnerability to respiratory disorders and infections, chest diseases, damage and inflammation to the lungs (Breuer, 1980).
For plants and agricultural crops, the presence of the ozone gas interferes with the process of photosynthesis and may to some extent inhibit the natural growth and development of some crop species. This has a general impact of reducing agricultural yields and thus may in the long run lead to hard economic times due to hunger and starvation.

Effects of Carbon Monoxide
This is an odorless, colorless gas which is highly poisonous to humans and is in most cases derived from incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels. The most defined sources of this toxic gas are industries and motor vehicles. Carbon monoxide emission has got several health effects whereby continual exposure may lead to poisoning of the heart and the nervous system, dizziness and headaches, suffocation, and to some extent severe effects on the unborn children incase an expectant mother is exposed to high concentrations of the gas.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Sulfur
Sulfur dioxide gas is produced through combustion of fuels with some sulfur contents e.g. fuel oils and coal. This poisonous gas may also be produced in metallurgical procedures involving ores rich in sulfur and in the industrial manufacture of sulfuric acid. This gas is harmful to man, materials and plants. This gas has an overall effect of interfering with the respiratory system when one is exposed continually to high concentrations of this gas. This gas can travel long distances by wind to the clouds leading to formation of acid rains which are in effect destructive to plant life, human life and even property since they cause corrosion (Miller, 1990).
Chlorofluorocarbons on the other hand are said to lower the ozone concentration in the stratosphere. Under extremely high energy UV radiation, chlorofluorocarbons disintegrate and release chlorine particles which in turn speed up the disintegration and ultimate breakdown of O3 (ozone) into oxygen gas. This leads to an increased rate of depletion of the ozone layer and also enhances global warming (Miller, 1990). The dangers and negative effects of global warming and ozone layer depletion are quite severe and substantial precautionary measures need to be urgently put in place to minimize air pollution by chlorofluorocarbons.

Global Warming
Green house gases have the ability to stay in the atmosphere for extremely long periods of time, ranging from few decades to several hundreds of years. Based on this argument, the global warming resulting from such emissions will in the long run have an impact on the Earth. Some of the negative effects of global warming are already being experienced in various parts of the world.

Global warming will also lead to an increase in the intensity and probability of heat waves and droughts. In as much as other parts of the globe may become wetter, other regions (especially Africa and certain parts of Europe) will experience serious heat waves and droughts. The consequences of global warming such as water shortage are already being experienced in most parts of Africa.

One major effect of global warming is the spread of diseases. The spread may be brought about through regular migrations of disease carrying insects such as mosquitoes from one part of the globe to another. To clearly illustrate this argument, warming of northern countries may have the general effect of causing insects to migrate towards the north. Some of these insects bring with them diseases and plague to such northern countries. For this reason, the fight against malaria has been negatively affected by global warming in this domain. ( HYPERLINK httpwww.environmentalgraffiti.comoffbeat-newsmalaria-no-longer-eradicated-thanks-to-global-warming402 httpwww.environmentalgraffiti.comoffbeat-newsmalaria-no-longer-eradicated-thanks-to-global-warming402 ).

Global warming would also result in the melting of polar ice caps. This will in turn lead to an increase in the sea levels and thus leading to an imbalanced situation of the global ecosystem. The melting of the ice will lead to desalination of most salty oceans leading to an interference with some of the aquatic lives. With all the white ice caps melt and gone, the terrestrial radiation from the earth would be highly reduced since ice which previously acted as a reflector would have gone. This will lead to increased temperatures.

Increase in the frequency andor magnitude of hurricanes is also another anticipated long term effect of global warming. It is argued that as the ocean temperatures rise due to the warming effect, the chances of increased hurricanes will also be high. These effects have a disastrous economic effect in that fighting diseases and dealing with destructions caused by hurricanes are quite expensive.

Ozone Layer Depletion
The ozone layer is part of the upper atmosphere. It is made up of an extremely high concentration of ozone (a form or type of oxygen) that absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This absorption ends up purifying and deodorizing the atmosphere. In addition, the ozone sterilizes the rain water reaching the earth surface (EPA, 1998).

Depletion of the ozone layer is said to indirectly or directly endanger human life and survival of other living organisms and plants. Minor cases of ozone depletion can result in major harmful effects. Scientific research shows that for 2 percent more of the harmful radiations are able to reach the earths surface for every 1 percent of the ozone layer depleted ( HYPERLINK httplibrary.thinkquest.org26026Environmental_Problemsenvironmental_problems.html httplibrary.thinkquest.org26026Environmental_Problemsenvironmental_problems.html ). Depletion of the ozone layer has many negative effects on the environment namely disruption of the food chain, interference with the normal life cycles of animals and plants.

The unforeseen impacts of the ozone depletion on animals may be severe. Oceans and other large water bodies will not be spared either with the ongoing destruction of the ozone layer. Tiny and microscopic organisms e.g. the plankton may fail to survive which in effect implies that all other animals above the plankton in the food chain would definitely die out. Depletion of the ozone layer could also lead to climate changes leading to changes in wind patterns and in turn affecting other ecosystems including forests, deserts and other vegetation cover ( HYPERLINK httplibrary.thinkquest.org26026Environmenta_Problemsenvironmental_problems.html httplibrary.thinkquest.org26026Environmenta_Problemsenvironmental_problems.html ).

Ozone depletion is also associated to various forms of skin cancer in humans. This is attributed to the fact that exposure to high levels of ultra violet radiations destroys the skin cells DNA composition thus increasing the risk of contracting skin cancer (non-melanoma or melanoma cancer). Immuno-suppression is said to be caused by ozone depletion since the Ultra Violet (UV-B) emissions have the overall effect of damaging the immune system of both animals and humans (Nilsson, 1996). More health dangers and illnesses such as Cataracts and blindness will arise since increased exposure to the UV-B radiations have the ability do distort the proteins and other cells within the eye.

Studies have been conducted by many scientists to establish the relationship between crop yields, ozone depletion and effects of increased exposure to UV-B radiations. Results of such studies have in the recent past indicated that increased exposure to UV-B radiations to plants has the effect of decreasing the crop yields (Nilsson, 1996). Critics of this postulation may however argue that certain plants have a natural mechanism that shields them from ultra violet damage.

There are several strategies that could be adopted with an aim of reducing air pollution and the dangers associated with climate change. Some of the measures could heavily rely on individual discipline and regulation of government policies in order to yield results. Some of the strategies may include restricted use of un- roadworthy vehicles, use of alternative means of transport such as cycling, walking or use of public transport. At domestic level, use of environmentally friendly energy appliances such as gas cookers in place of charcoal burners, fluorescent tubes instead of ordinary incandescent bulbs may also play a critical role in minimizing air pollution. Planting trees and implementing laws that illegalize deforestation may also come in handy in ensuring clean environment.

Human Health and the Environment

The risks and dangers of using Asbestos, DDT, and Chlorination of drinking water
There are many reasons why as an appointee of the Risk-Benefit Analysis Board, it is necessary to discourage and disapprove the use of the asbestos, the DDT and chlorinated water. Though these substances have been used for a long time in the enhancement of health by preventing risks and diseases, they pose a potentially high risk that should be considered before releasing them into the market (Stacey et al, 2009)

Asbestos refers to a certain group of minerals which naturally occur as fiber bundles in the environment. Asbestos fibers are very resistant to chemicals, fire and heat. They are bad conductors of electricity. Due to these qualities, they are greatly used in industries across the globe. People get exposed to these minerals while at work, through the atmosphere or at home because once a product containing asbestos is disturbed, their tiny fibbers are automatically released into the air. When breathed in, the asbestos fibers are trapped and can remain in the lungs for a very long time. They accumulate with time causing inflammation and scarring (Magraw, 1991). This not only affects the breathing system but can also result into complicated health problems. The exposure of these minerals increases the risks of some diseases such as lung cancer, asbestosis, Mesothelioma, pleural disorders and nonmalignant lung. Smokers who expose themselves to asbestos have even a higher risk of lung cancer. However, people who suffer from these diseases as a result of exposure to these minerals are those whose exposure is on regular basis - in most cases people working with them directly. The health hazards resulting from asbestos have been mostly experienced by people in shipbuilding trades, manufacturing of asbestos textiles, milling and mining, insulation in construction, firefighters, drywall removers and automobile workers (Harrison, 1997)

There are also risks associated with the use of chlorine in drinking water. Though chlorine is used to purify water, the chemicals contained in chlorinated water have become health hazard making chlorinated water more of a risk than a protective measure. Developing problems in the digestive system, chronic diarrhea, acid reflux and irritable bower are amongst the dangers that result from drinking chlorinated water (Magraw, 1991). Human body is designed to consume fresh water containing balanced pH and a very minor mineral content which chlorinated water lacks. Chlorinated water contains pH levels which are not suitable for proper digestion. Other alternatives of making water safe such as good home filter systems should be used to replace chlorine in domestic water. This is because a good filter provides the right level of pH and very slight minerals (Ezine articles, 2009)

DDT was the first among the chlorinated organic insecticides. It started being used enormously after the Second World War because of its usefulness against malaria spreading mosquito and the fleas that transmit typhus. Problems that are related to the extensive use of the insecticide showed when the insects started to develop resistance and in addition, it was discovered to be containing high degrees of toxicity towards fish (Ehrlich 1977).  In addition, this insecticide has posed other problems that make it improper and a potential threat to animals. DDT does not get metabolized rapidly in animals it is instead deposited and accumulated in fatty tissues. The organic half-life of DDT is approximately eight years. This means that it takes eight years for animals to metabolize half the amount it digests. An animal will be able to completely decompose all the DDT content it had assimilated after sixteen years, not counting that there are likely cases of continued regular intake of the substance. If ingestion still continues, DDT accumulates in the animals body over time, resulting to serious complications on the health of the animal. Although there has not been found evidence of the damage of the product to human beings, the danger to the animals should nonetheless be overlooked since they make it an environmental hazard (Smith, 2000)

The major sources of drinking water in New York City
There are several sources of water that is used by the people in New York ranging from rivers estuaries and lakes. The watersheds are however the sources of clean drinking water in New York. They are used because they provide clean water and are at the same time a public utility available to the residents of New York (Elbert, 2009)

Treatment of drinking water
The drinking water is treated using chlorine (to destroy dangerous viruses and bacteria). It is also treated with fluoride (to prevent decaying of teeth) as well as orthophosphate (to avoid metals, inclusive of lead, from getting released as a result of plumbing). These processes are considered best to ensure that the drinking water is safe and clean for domestic consumption (Freeman, 2007).

Is bottled water better than tap water
Most Americans consume bottled water. Bottled water is appealing and may appear safe and clean for drinking but there are several incidences that provide proof that not all bottled water is any better ( if not worse) than the tap water. It has also been evidenced that several of the bottling companies have been in the business just for commercial purposes, rather than treating water and making it safe for drinking (Roman, 2010)

The bottled water industry mostly presents an image of purity and cleanliness. However, inclusive testing has revealed that surprising arrays of chemical pollutant are present in every brand of bottled water. Such include toxic byproducts of chlorination. Cancer-causing pollutants in bottled water bought in five states (California, North Carolina, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia,) and also D.C. considerably exceeded the deliberate standards recognized by the bottled water industry (Naidenko, Liba, Sharp, 2008). Unlike the tapped water whereby consumers are given the results on annual basis, bottled water industry does not disclose the results of the contaminant testing. The industry hides under the claim that is usually held with similar safety standards as the tap water. But with campaigns of promotion flooded mountain springs images and prices which are about 1,900 times the usual price of the tap water clients are led to think they are purchasing a product which is purified to a degree further than the water from the garden hose (Sharp, 2008).

Laboratory tests that were conducted at one of the leading water value laboratories for EWG established that ten popular types of branded bottled water, bought from stores and retailers in nine states and D.C., contained thirty eight pollutants and a standard of eight contaminants per brand. One-third of these chemicals are not synchronized in bottled water. For example, in Acadia and Sams Choice brands, the level of a number of chemicals goes beyond legal restrictions in California and industry-sponsored deliberate security standards. In addition, four of the brands contained bacteria pollutants (Liba, 2009).

Americans currently drink twice the amount of bottled water as consumed ten years ago, for a total of more than 9 billion gallons and production proceeds approaching 12 billion. Purity ought to be part of the price usually the cost of 3.79 per gallon, is 1,900 times the cost of public tap water. (Naidenko, Liba  Sharp, 2008).  EWGs tests show that in certain cases, the industry could be distributing a beverage which is just a little cleaner than the normal tap water, sold at premium prices. The health penalties of exposure to these compound mixtures of pollutants like those in bottled water have not yet been studied (Owen, 2006)

Swimming bans due to pollution and fishing bans
Serious toxic waste disposal problems in Onondaga Lake happened as a result of industrial discharges and sewage disposal linked to population increase and industrialization. This led to the banning of swimming in the lake and also the prohibition of the consumption of fish from the lake (Younger, 1999).

The dangers of nitrogen oxide
Just because no one has died yet or suffered from nitrogen oxides effects does not mean that the current federal emission standards for this pollutant should be relaxed. Studies and investigations have already shown enough evidence of many serious risks and dangers resulting from the exposure to or contact with nitrogen oxides for continued and regular basis. Nitrogen oxides are toxic and whether or not they have resulted to death does not make them less toxic or harmless to human life (Alice, 2008).

Nitrogen oxides are gases composed of oxygen and nitrogen. Nitrogen oxide is released into the air by motor vehicle exhausts, oil, burning of coal and natural gas particularly from electric power plants. Nitrogen oxides are regular pollutants existing in nearly the entire atmosphere of the United States. Exposure to very high levels of these oxides can simply cause death, collapse, swelling of tissues and rapid burning of upper respiratory tract. In addition, it results to difficulties in breathing, fluid accumulation in the lungs and throat spasms. It interferes with the ability of the blood to carry oxygen throughout the body thus leading to fatigue, headaches, blue color in the lips and skin and dizziness (Stacey, 2009).

There are more serious effects of nitrogen oxide because industrial contact with this substance can result to damage of developing fetus, cause genetic mutations and generally reduce the fertility in women. A continued exposure to it can cause permanent damage to the lungs. Long-term contact to nitrogen oxides in smoke can generate serious problems in the respiratory system, together with damage to the lung tissues and decline in the functioning of the lungs. Exposure to small quantities of nitrogen oxides in smoke can cause irritation of the nose, throat, eyes, and lungs. It can lead to shortness of breath, coughing, nausea and fatigue.  These factors therefore make the nitrogen oxides a potential danger to human life and health and as such the federal emissions standards should be emphasized but not relaxed. Relaxing of these standards amounts to exposing Americans to serious health related disorders in the future (Magraw, 1991).
To the admissions department,

I am (place name) and I am interested in attending Linkping University under your Master degree of Science for Sustainable Development Study program. I have done a lot of research online as well as through brochures and the advice of my friends and family as such I have come to the conclusion that if I were to attend Linkping University that I would grow as a person and I would be able to become a success.

When applying to your institution I do not just bring myself as a person rather I also bring with me many years of academic experience. I have been studying at (name of university) for (put number of years) with several months being dedicated to internships (place name of company or companies that you interned with). Throughout those years I helped (place name of company or companies) respond to rapidly changing technologies and practices by using what I learned at my university to respond to deadlines set by my immediate supervisor and by (give a short summary of what you did there). I can assure you that I can keep up with the demands of the course and even excel due to my experiences.

The reason why I want to attend your institution is because when I took up (place name of degree that you took up while in college) I thought that I would be able to immediately achieve my dream of becoming an (place name of environmental profession that you want to take up) wherein I would be able to do field work and find a way to do my part for the environment. Suffice it to say I discovered early on that what I learned was lacking. That in order to be (place name of profession) I would need to immerse myself in the given field that I wanted to take up.

As I mentioned earlier, I thoroughly researched what it meant to become an expert in my field, I though that if I gained enough experience I would be able to become a consultant and be on my way to proving my worth. After several weeks of searching I came upon the website of your university. It may have been more than just coincidence at work when I came upon it though.

I have always wanted to travel to Sweden, I am originally from Taiwan and then I moved to Vancouver during my early years and now I am in Ontario where I graduated from (place name of university). I happen to like travelling seeing new and interesting things has always been a thrill for me. I believe that life should be enjoyed and that the only way to expand your knowledge and wisdom is to continuously experience new things. I do not think that it is mere coincidence that the place I wanted to visit had the university I needed to go to in order to achieve my dreams.

While I was at (place name of University) I was able to successfully complete numerous courses involving different environment topics in which I learned various lessons which I hold dear. I have taken up Earth 123 which is an introduction to hydrology wherein I was taught about the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth as well as about the water cycle and the different dangers that the Earths water supply faces due to mankinds interference. In Earth 270 I learned about the different natural disasters and natural hazards that nature can cause and that a lot of the recent natural disasters namely stronger storms, hurricanes, droughts and floods have been theorized to have been caused by mans interference in the natural cycle of the Earth. In science 250 I studied environment geology and on how underwater reservoirs of freshwater can be affected by pollution from landfills resulting in poisoned water that can come into contact with livestock and even people resulting in deaths due to water poisoning.

I took up Earth 205 which was an introduction to the Atmospheric sciences, it was through that course that I learned about the different kinds of pollutants that are being released into the atmosphere on a daily basis and what their long term environmental impact would be.

Some of my other subjects such as physical and chemical hydrogeology I learned about the movement of water underneath the Earths crust and how ground water reservoirs have been slowly been depleted due to over consumption and pollution. Under Earth 281, 359, 421 and 221 I was able to learn the impact of geological pollution on human health and the methods and ways on how to prevent it from happening.
While finishing my bachelors degree my thesis project at (place name of university) was the use of MeHg in wood particle bioreactors as an effective means of removing the presence of excessive nitrates in agricultural lands that were brought about by environmental pollution.

One of the reasons why I chose to pursue this particular project is because I have always been interested in field work as well as environmental containment.

I believe that its will enable people to combat the excessive nitrates that are accumulating in the soil due to pollution. If people are unwilling to change the method wherein they contribute to the pollution in the environment a solution must then be made to ensure the continued presence of the environment till such a time that people change enough to realize the true damage that they are doing.

The reason I am so determined to take up the environmental sciences as a field of study is due to the fact that on the news I see on a daily basis the effects of mans maltreatment of the environment. On how people say there is nothing wrong, that the scientists are exaggerating all of it. Then why are their people dying from stronger storms Hurricane Katrina is a good example wherein an entire U.S. city was devastated by a storm of previously unheard of strength. Typhoon Ondoy in the Philippines devastated the Philippine capital causing millions of dollars in damages and causing the deaths of several hundred in outlying villages, seeing people on TV. standing on the rooftop of a house while it being swept away by floodwaters thinking that they seem safe only to see them crash into a low lying bridge and drown to death. Such images burn at the back of mind, with me thinking how can people not see that there is definitely something wrong going on here With droughts occurring on one side of the globe and excessive rains on the other not to mention the polar ice caps actually melting enough to allow ships to pass through the once fabled north west passage is hard evidence enough that our planet is changing and not for the better.

I plan to become and individual so well versed in my field that I will be able to effectively help people and do my part in ensuring the continued survival of this planet, I refuse to turn a blind eye like others have just for the sake of comfort. Its my planet too and while I live on it I plan to protect it and ensure that it will be there for when my own children are born and not have them see a wasteland created by the folly of man.

When it comes to my use of the English language I can assure you that I am a fluent English speaker and I can write in a manner that is clear and well understood.  I graduated from (place name of university institution) wherein I completed the course with a good academic record and without incident. Through my experiences there and what I learned while working I realized that in order for me to improve myself and get ahead in the world I will need to improve what I already know and learn new things. I enjoyed my college experiences and going back to them would be like revisiting an old friend. I decided that there would be nothing wrong with going back to achieve another degree. With this in mind I am determined in entering Linkping University and I assure you I will succeed and even thrive in an academic environment.

In conclusion I am confident in my skills and I know that should I be accepted I would be able to finish my degree and become an alumnus the school would be proud of.

Thank you and I hope that I will accepted

Cordially,
(Place name then sign at the bottom)

Fire Environment and Fire Behavior

Fire behavior results from interaction of fire with its environment and the interplay between different environmental components. At any moment of time, fire behavior can be deciphered from the state of individual components of the fire environment and their interactions. Fire environment connotes the conditions, influences and modifying forces that affect and control fire behavior.

The environment consists of three components, namely topography, fuel and air mass. Topography includes slope, aspect, configuration, and land elevation. Fuel serves as the source of thermal or heat energy and influences fire behavior. Air mass includes multifarious weather elements such as precipitation and humidity. These components vary over space and time. Topography and fuel characteristics, except moisture of dead fuel, change very slowly with time but air mass shows considerable variation. All three components can show significant spatial variation. Solar energy facilitates interaction between the three environmental components to the extent that changes in one component cause variations in the other two. Non-uniform or differential heating of the sun results in creation of micro and macro climatic patterns, which influence fire behavior. Like the sun, fire serves as a heat source in the environment.

However, its proximity causes extreme temperature variations between itself and the adjacent environment, resulting in adverse effects on the latter. Scale of environmental influence on fire behavior varies directly with fire intensity. More intense the fire, higher the horizontal and vertical extent of the concerned environment Fire behavior changes as it moves horizontally, across the terrain, and vertically. It also varies with time. Fire behavior is the culmination of principles from numerous fields including aerodynamics, chemistry, combustion physics and thermodynamics, making it difficult to foretell. However, even the most unusual fires observe compliance with physical laws and can be accurately predicted by firefighters with increase in experience.

Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison Green House Britain and the Force Majeure

While most of the people in the world fret on the luxurious way of living brought about by the technological advances and researches, environmental protection and conservation which are supposed to be the top priority of the people becomes the concern that is mostly taken for granted.

One of the pressing issue with regards to our environment is the alarming threat of global warming. As the day goes by, people are extensively contributing to the global warming of the Earth through burning wastes, using toxic and harmful chemicals, polluting land air and water and other activities that are continuously destroying mother nature (Weart, 2004).

It is indeed a great opportunity to everyone to have proper education on how to preserve and conserve the environment while advancing to the modern way of living as such the environment is the one which nourishes every living thing.

The collaborative effort of Kala Art Institute, Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison together with Bayer USA Foundation is a perfect avenue to make a big difference on the preservation of our dying Mother Earth. The exhibits, which mainly talk about the global warming and other environmental issues, are a good start to inculcate proper education to the people about the proper care to the nature.

Green House Britain and the Force Majeure, The Harrisons  exhibition at the Kala Gallery, is comprised of a multi-media work which addresses environmental concerns particularly global warming (Kala Art Institute, 2009).

The exhibits in the form of video presentation, images, drawing, text, map and the like are indeed useful for the proper education of the people about the condition of the Earth with regards to global warming. As such it is the responsibility of everyone to take care the environment that nourishes our existence in the world, it can make a big difference to know the practical ways to conserve and preserve the nature through the education provided by the said exhibits.
 Sustainability is one of the major issues being discussed worldwide. The core of the debate consists of which factors essentially affect the ability of nature to sustain the human population. The west (industrialized countries) and the south (third world countries) have opposing arguments towards the issue. The west perspective maintains that population is the biggest culprit for environmental degradation. View from the south, on the other hand, maintains that over-consumption by the western countries lead to environmental degradation.

While the debate remains unsettled, a school and a non-profit organization in the US have together taken an initiative to start providing solutions to the issue of sustainability in their own little way. King Middle School Principal Neil Smith and Chef Alice Water of Chez Panisse Foundation collaborated to build the Edible Schoolyard in 1995, on a one acre land in Berkeley, California. The goal of the collaboration is to teach students the idea that our food choices actually affect natures welfare. In the course of learning, the students will develop better appreciation of how food goes to their tables, as well as about the food itself.
The Edible Schoolyard (ES) program draws striking similarities from the teaching ideas advanced by Paulo Freire. Fraire believes in a five-fold scheme of educating students informal teaching approach, praxis-centered activities (informed actions), development of a consciousness that has the ability to execute changes, hands-on learning (application to day-to-day life), and transcending the traditional stiff mentor-student relationship. The ES program enables students to grasp the essentials of the concept of sustainability based on an everyday life situational approach (i.e. meal preparation). They learn from the hands-on works in the schoolyard rather than from a mentor speaking the ideas, as what occurs in a traditional classroom setting.
1. List and explain the three broad sectors that are categorized in PV industry jobs.
Module design and manufacturing  These jobs usually involves the designing of the different structures needed to support solar cells as well as the different processes needed to gather and store the energy collected. This usually entails a B.S. degree in electronic engineering.

Hands-on installation services - This particular sector involves the workmen who deal with the installation and maintenance of PV installations. You can think of them as the solar power industrys equivalent of cable installation and repair men. These jobs usually dont require a college degree however they do need technical training in this particular field.

Administration and management, sales and marketing, customer service and warranty support. - This particular sector involves the people who run the company and ensure that its day to day operations run smoothly.

2. What are three primary strategiesguidelines for entering the solar industry
Networking - In any industry getting your foot in the door so to speak all begins with who you get to know. Networking plays an important role in this in that it enables you to get your name out there, to meet new people and possibly gather contacts that you might be able to use in the future. By meeting people who are actively involved in the PV industry any individual will be able to grasp how the current PV market works, which particular niche would suit them best and who to contact in the future if they should want an opportunity to get into that particular aspect of the industry.

Gaining hands-on training - By gaining hands on training through courses in your community college or by setting up your own home PV system you will be able to gain an understanding of what goes into the creation of a PV setup which will enable you to gain an understanding of the processes at work from start to finish and would be able to impress a future employer should you be asked to what your understanding of the system is.

Gaining experience through volunteering -  Joining nonprofit organizations will enable an individual to get to know the environmental factor behind the use of solar energy and the current state of the industry through the eyes of an outside perspective. Doing so will give you a broad idea of what the industry if like and what particular aspect of it seems to be the best in line with what you want to do with your career in the industry.

3. What are the main customer sectors in the PV industry Describe the differences between them.
Residential - The residential sector involves the installation of a PV grid on top of a persons home. This sort of setup is usually on a small scale and is easy to setup with little if no complications.

Commercial - Commercial installations involves small to medium scale areas such as supermarkets and shopping mall (Walmart). In cases such as these the reason for the setup is usually to save the company
some money.

Municipal - Municipal projects usually involves the installation of a large solar grid to power either a building or a town. Such projects are government contracted and are usually put in place due to lobbying by locals for a cleaner alternative for their energy needs.

Industrial - The largest and most complicated sector in the PV industry is the industrial. It involves large scale solar fields to harvest electricity which is then connected to the State power grid. A comparable example of this would be the Direct Solar Power grid of Aseona located in Nevada which utilizes a different sort of solar technology but a similar concept. It is one of the largest solar power fields in the world and is connected directly to the Nevada grid.

4. Explain the direct and indirect careers available in the United States PV industry.
The PV industry is unique in the sense that due to its popularity as a green technology and with the growing concern regarding global warming it has enjoyed an extensive following both in the private and public sector. Direct careers for the PV industry usually involves the installers, the administrative staff, the engineers and the support staff needed to maintain the company. This sort of arrangement is normal for a lot of companies however the PV industry is unique due to its environmental aspect. With its creation indirect careers appeared in the form of nongovernmental  and nonprofit organizations who promote its use as a way of saving the environment. Then there are government programs which are created to evaluate and promote its use to the public and finally there are industries who try to imitate the practices of the PV industry due to its apparent profit.

5. Discuss how you might adapt your own professional knowledge, experience, or training to a job in a solar company.
I plan to adapt my professional knowledge and experience into getting a job in a solar company by learning all that I can about the industry, Attend various seminars and courses involving the industry and finally by reading all that I can about what the industry is about and where it is headed. By doing this I will be able to present myself as an individual who can and will be able to uphold the companys ideals of producing clean, renewable power.

6. How might you address the fact there is a cause factor in the industry
It is true that the reason for the PV industry is due to the fact that with rising global temperatures brought about by increased carbon dioxide emissions by factories and cars that the need for a cleaner form of technology is needed to power humanitys insatiable appetite for electricity however since there is a need for the industry thats what makes it that much more important to promote and develop since it is not only for our sakes but for the sake of the next generation that we must preserve our planet.

7. Identify two additional resources available to individuals interested in the PV industry. How do these resources help guide you in the industry
Company sponsored lessons and volunteer programs will enable me to attain a better understanding of the industry and thus will help me choose what career path would be more suitable for me. Not only that by attending these functions it will show future employers that I am a person who truly has a passion for the PV industry.

Answer theses two question.
1. Why do you need to earn NABCEP installer certification
In any industry it is important to show that you have an understanding of how the technology works and what are the different trends that are developing that continue to drive the industry forward. A NABEP Installer Certification which can only be attained by individuals who have undergone at least a year of hands on in installing PV installations gives you recognition for your experience and skill in installing PV constructs. Having this certificate will enable you to easily be hired by most companies since having a qualified experience professional is far better than having someone who has little experience and little knowledge of how to do things properly.

2. Because of global warming policies cost of KWhr will significantly increase. Explain how this will help promoting Solar PV and career opportunities for you.
Due to the creation of the Investment tax credit scheme customers who install their grids will be able to avail of tax incentives that will enable them to make a profit from their grids that are connected to the nations power grid and with the growing concern regarding global warming and the different policies that are being created to remedy it renewable sources of energy will be more profitable in the years to come as more incentives are created to encourage its use and for the companies that produce it.

ARTICLE REVIEW

Article Palmer, James and Robin Hoffman. 2000. Rating reliability and representation validity in scenic landscape assessments. Suny College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Landscape and Urban Planning 54, 149-161.

Problem Statement
The validity of an expert testimony must be substantiated by scientific findings. The problem however, is the nature of aesthetic judgment itself. What separates the layman from the professional (in the field of landscape assessments) is never clear from the standpoint of legal procedures.

Significance of the Problem
Visual landscape assessments must be accompanied by tests of reliability and validity. Validity and reliability determines the overall efficacy of a finding when presented in court. The US Supreme Court determined that an assessment can only be admitted as testimony if 1) it can be tested, 2) subjected to peer review and published, 3) ability to control parameters, and 4) acceptance by the relevant scientific community.

Literature
Unit of analysis is generally microscopic, in the sense that current literature on this topic is essentially differential.  Different authors have different views of methods, methodology, mode of analysis, etc.

Method
Calculating reliability coefficients can be achieved by clear reference to statistical procedures. Some of the methods used are ANOVA, matrix determination, and group mean measurements (for validity). A Likert scale is used to assess the actual response of the samples (it was not mentioned the number of samples).

Implications
The implications are quite clear. One can clearly see the standardization of visual assessment in terms of methodology. Another is the systematization of the process of admitting findings in a court of law.

Critique
Barriers to reliability and validity may also be internal. Measuring across-group differences are not enough to resolve the issues involved. The researchers may need to develop a more holistic approach in dealing with such problems.

Environmental Factors Affecting House Prices

A) Statement of the Problem There are many factors that can readily affect house prices. These can be the economic, social and environmental factors. Environmental factors can be varied too. Which among them could make significant impact in the process of decision making and in up to what extent

B)  Significance Of The Problem-The study focused on how significance or impact ecological motivations such as presence of water, green areas, open spaces,  gardens, woods and parks can be in making decisions regarding house prices and premiums in different areas like that of the Netherlands.

C)  Literature Review -The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house price in the Netherlands was an Elsevier Landscape and Urban Planning article by Joke Luttik, a researcher on Landscape and Spatial Planning in Netherlands.

D) The Approach or Methods Employed- The research method that has been employed is the hedonic pricing method or HPM which is a statistical analysis used to estimate the effect of environmental attributes on transaction prices.

E) The Basic Findings-The basic findings of the study demonstrates the significance of particular environmental factors to house premiums plus other more important factors to consider like the attractive landscape, presence of water, and accessibility to other amenities.

F) Implications-The implication of these findings is the evidence that environmental factors play to housing location and its effect to potential buyers or developers.

G) Critique in Terms of the Threats to Validity of the Study-Comparison of the results of the study showed that there seemed to be little reason to assume that only environmental aspect or presence of green areas can make a different premium in a certain locality. There are other more factors involved like the total attractiveness, accessibility, social-economic status and the absence of traffic noises among other important factors.

A Case Study Method in Landscape Architecture

(A book review)

A Case Study Method in Landscape Architecture

statement of the problem
a. Bryant Park, which is supposed to be the place for leisure and relaxation, served as the meeting place of the buyers and dealers of illegal drugs.

significance of the problem
a.  The problem causes the place to have a negative impact to most of the people.

b. The young people of the place are directly affected.

approach or methods employed 
a. Multi-method approach (combination of historical and  story-telling or anecdotal documentation)

the basic findings 
a. It was found out that the intensive illegal activity has something to do with the semi-seclusion lay out of the park which becomes strategic for the drug dealers to do their business with the drug user.

Implications and Solutions
a. Landscape architect Laurie Olin and his firm Hanna or Olin suggested redevelopment and redesign on the park to improve its physical problems such as the numerous dad ends, lack of amenities and many hidden places so that the problem on illegal drug transaction will be eliminated (Francis 2001).

b. Some of the numerous recommendations that will solve the problem of the said park include the removal of the iron fences and shrubbery, cutting of openings in the balustrades for easier pedestrian circulation, provision of a third set of steps midway between the existing stairs and 42nd street and ramps for the handicapped,  improvement of visual access up the steps on the venue of the Americas, restoration of the fountain and other restroom structures (Whyte 1998 as ctd in Francis 2001).

critique in terms of the threats to validity of the study
a. One of the problems was the maintenance of the park since it was made open for the public. It was good that amenities had been placed for the convenience of the people and for the encouragement to do relaxation and recreation instead of illegal activities. But the maintenance for the said amenities is not that easy. The problem again is to where the fund will come in order to maintain the cleanliness and orderliness of the park.

Is Wind Power Green

Green power is basically the energy produced through the exploitation of natural resources that are abundant in the environment, are easily renewable, and do not contribute to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In recent years, wind power has become one of the most common forms of green power seeing that a growing number of countries are investing a considerable amount of resources in constructing wind farms. Many multi-turbine wind farms as well as utility-connected wind turbines nowadays are being used to generate renewable, clean energy to power businesses and homes. European nations and other countries like China believe that wind power generation, as compared to other renewable energy sources, does not cause water, soil, and air pollution. Accordingly, these countries view wind power as a complete opposite of the traditional fossil fuel power plants, and consider wind power as an essential aspect of their ongoing energy policy. However, is wind power as green as many people and countries claim Taken as a whole, wind power is without a doubt a green power, or a clean and renewable energy, which is very much contrary to the traditional fossil fuels that produce enormous amounts of hard-to-manage wastes.

Wind Power
Wind power is essentially a power that is derived from wind, and is found to be a good alternative source of energy. When air moves, wind is consequently produced, and with the appropriate technology, the kinetic energy of the wind can be captured and then modified to other forms of energy, including mechanical and electrical powers. The different types of wind generators that are used to collect wind power include sails, wind turbines, and windmills. In view of this, the wind power is therefore considered as one of the most ancient forms of energy generation utilized by humans as sails that allow winds to push vessels and windmills that spin millstones have been used by humans for thousands of years already. In modern years, wind power is gaining worldwide acceptance as a large scale energy source. In fact, as of 2008, approximately one percent of the entire energy used worldwide was generated from wind power, with the industry continually growing rapidly (Smith, 2010).

Wind Power as Green Power
Wind energy can be exploited in certain areas where favorable conditions are present. When effectively utilized, the electricity generated from wind turbines, like any other source of energy, can sufficiently power schools, houses, appliances, and even an entire community depending on the capacity and size of the turbines. However, compared to the traditional energy sources, the environmental impacts of wind power are somewhat insignificant. Unlike fossil fuel power sources, energy derived from wind power emits no air pollution and consumes no limited fuels. Accordingly, the operation of wind farms does not produce particulates, mercury, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, or any other forms of air pollutants as fossil fuel power sources do. Because of the clean and renewable energy generated by wind power, millions of people view the wind power as a better means to generate electricity than nuclear, coal, gas, or even hydro powers. Moreover, wind power is viewed as a green power since it can significantly reduce the environmental damages caused by power generation all over the world, and its environmental consequences are very modest when measured up to what is achieved (Galbraith, 2009).

Proponents of Wind Power
Wind power, unlike fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases that continually discharge greenhouse gases in the environment, is obviously one of the cleanest and safest sources of renewable energy in the planet. Accordingly, proponents of wind power believe that governments around the world need to shift their energy use priorities to renewable and clean energy, particularly to wind energy. The proponents further claim that the potential brought by the recent developments of better energy generation methods and technological enhancements of wind power will eventually make wind energy as the primary source of worldwide mechanical and electricity power in the near future (West, 2010). In fact, recent figures from the American Wind Energy Association reveal that establishment of wind farms are at an intense pace in the United States, particularly in Texas, Iowa, and California, which are the top three states that significantly utilize the potential wind power (Galbraith, 2009).

Texas Case
To bring pollution-free energy from stormy West Texas to urban areas, the government of Texas approved the largest wind-power project in the United States by building new transmission lines amounting to billions of dollars (MSNBC, 2008, p.1). During the past years, the state of Texas has been a strong proponent of wind power, and this new project will further make Texas a leader in providing renewable power to the metropolitan areas that require electricity. According to State Representative Mark Strama, the capacity for wind generation in north and west Texas is so immense that the state could easily become the world leader in renewable and wind energy in the next century, just as the state is the world leader in gas and oil for the past century (MSNBC, 2008, p. 2). In fact, because of the promise of wind power, legendary Texas oilman T. Boone Pickens procured hundreds of wind turbines to cover his 400,000 acres of land located near Pampa, Texas, which he converted to wind farm. The wind farm of Pickens is scheduled to be completed in 2014 and is considered the largest wind farm of the world at a cost amounting to approximately 12 billion (MSNBC, 2008, p. 2).  

Critics of Wind Power
However, many critics of wind power like the Fraser Institute claim that wind power is inefficient, unreliable, as well as expensive, and it confers less than one percent to the diminution of worldwide greenhouse gases (National Wind Watch, 2009). Moreover, in Germany, experts have found that carbon dioxide emissions have not been reduced by even a single gram, even though the country is operating numerous wind turbines. Distressingly, during the past years, Germany was forced to build additional gas-fired and coal plants to facilitate the countrys power generation needs. Critics further explained that on average, the wind turbines only generate less than 25 percent of power at a time, which usually leads to brownouts in the facilitated areas because of the unstable voltage (National Wind Watch, 2009). Under this scenario, wind power becomes more of an annoyance than a source of electricity.

Denmarks Case
Denmark is the most wind-extensive country all over the world with over 6,000 turbines that contribute roughly to 19 percent of the countrys electricity (National Wind Watch, 2009). Nevertheless, despite the numerous turbines, critics claim (1) that not a single fossil fuel power plant has been closed in the country (2) that an additional 50 percent coal-generated electricity is continually being used to facilitate winds failings (3) that in 2006 alone, carbon dioxide emissions and pollution increased to 36 percent and (4) that electricity costs in Denmark are the most expensive among the European countries (National Wind Watch, 2009). Because of the aforesaid findings, critics as well as residents of Denmark believe that the countrys windmills economically make no sense, and do not instigate the reduction of fossil fuel use.

Impacts of Wind Power 
Many countries have embraced wind power policies as part of their advocacies to use and promote clean energy. One of the problems, however, to the ever-increasing global exploitation of wind power is that wind farms are being positioned along the coastlines or on large tracts of land that lock in the best wind movement. Unfortunately, devoting these areas to wind farms in many cases have sacrificed other government priorities, including urban, wildlife sanctuary, and agricultural developments. Therefore, although wind power has several environmental advantages, it is not entirely environmentally friendly. In addition, wind farms not only take up valuable land, but building the turbines also necessitates considerable resources, particularly in building the infrastructures needed to transport the electricity generated to the intended areas (Smith, 2010). Moreover, many observers believe that wind farms are creating other environmental concerns including visual impacts, avian mortality and noise.

Wyomings Case
Approximately 20 percent of Wyomings area is now declared by the Bureau of Land Management to be off-limits to wind power development (Siegel, 2010). In an attempt to protect the natural habitat of many birds, particularly the Wyomings sage grouse, the Bureau has ordered that all new wind power projects will not anymore be authorized in the core habitats of grouse, which represents roughly 23 percent of the states area. Even though the state is a strong supporter of wind power, they declared that they do not desire to replace the old problems by creating new ones. Accordingly, Wyoming has stepped up its environmental standards by developing wind farms within the areas that do not infringe the protected and threatened habitat of the sage grouse (Siegel, 2010).

Other Measures Being Conducted to Address the Problems 
Bird and bat mortality is a serious and very controversial biological concern not only in Wyoming but for the wind industry all over the world. Conservation and wildlife agencies have raised concerns about the deaths of bats and birds at wind farm sites (Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS, n.d.). In order to address this issue, governments of the affected areas and wind industries have continually sponsored research regarding appropriate study design procedures, mitigation measures, and relevant bat and bird behavior. Moreover, to address the problems, project developers are now being mandated to gather additional information through monitoring efforts at proposed and existing wind energy sites. Hence, careful site selection is now being required by governments and agencies involved in order to minimize avian fatalities and other negative environmental impacts (Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS, n.d.).

On the other hand, like all mechanical systems, wind turbines are expected to create some level of noise during their operation. In order to solve this problem, engineers involved in creating wind turbines have now made significant design changes to minimize the noise from the said turbines (Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS, n.d.). These engineers are now using, among others, insulating materials and proper positioning to reduce noise impacts. Moreover, although wind turbines are positioned in exposed places, it does not necessarily mean that they are visually interfering. Many wind farms nowadays are being placed in multiple locations, with only few turbines in any one location. As a result, the multiple locations strategy has not created any significant negative aesthetic consequences to the landscape (Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS, n.d.).

Analysis of the Issues
Notwithstanding the aforesaid disadvantages, wind energy, as compared to nuclear plants, coal burning plants and other forms of energy generation, is considerably more preferable. Plants and households that use fossil fuels cause pollution to the environment and make use of resources that are not renewable. In contrasts, wind power does not use combustion to produce energy, and more importantly does not produce greenhouse emissions. In addition, wind power does not bring about environmental impairment through resource transportation and extraction, or necessitate considerable amounts of water during operations. In other words, wind power does not generate water or air emissions that can cause hazardous wastes, nor does it exhaust natural resources such as gas, oil, or coal.

As compared to other renewable or green energy, wind power is also apparently more preferable. Hydroelectric power, for instance, involves the construction of dams, which is necessary in order to exploit energy in water, and as a result, the dams can cause more interference to the well-being of waterways and damage to the natural habitats of plants and animals than wind power does. Wind power is without doubt a green power because it can reduce the environmental damage caused by power generation, and it has very little environmental consequences when weighed against to what is achieved.

Wind power plants are to some extent only creating little environmental impacts than fossil fuel and other renewable power plants. Most of the concerns raised on wind farms merely revolve around the visual impacts of wind turbines, noise created by the blades, deaths of bats and birds, as well as economic benefits. Nevertheless, in general, wind power, when compared to other traditional energy sources, has significantly less environmental impact, is utilizing an infinite source of energy, and has more advantages than disadvantages. In fact, because of the promise brought by wind power, many countries today, including the United States, are now integrating wind power policies as part of their advocacies to use and promote clean energy, and are investing a significant amount of resources in creating wind farms. Thus, wind power is the energy source of the future and is without a doubt a green power, or a clean and renewable energy, unlike the traditional fossil fuels which generate enormous amounts of hard-to-manage wastes.