Environmental Issues

Though invention and development of genetically modified organisms has remained a center of controversy for long, its assimilation and full application requires a more in-depth evaluation to facilitate holistic address of the current global food problems.  Genetic engineering has come at a time when the globe is facing key threats related to reduced land productivity, increased disasters such as droughts, and most importantly a steadily rising population which demand assimilation of more  effective methods in  addressing food insecurity.  As Holst-Jensen (1075) concurs with Claudia et al (69-70), genetically modified organisms present the enhanced capacity of the people in the 21st century to revitalize their concerns in addressing key problems affecting the people.  In this case therefore, it acts against the Malthusian theory and presents human beings with a viable future.  It is from this consideration that this paper evaluates GMOs to assess how various  stakeholders have taken them, outlines my opinion to it and further presents how it has been influenced by the emergent researches.

A Brief analysis of GMO Historical and its theoretical underpinning s
History and countries orientation
Though the history of GMO can be traced back to the onset of the 19th century when Charles Darwin concluded his natural selection theory, greater emphasis has been given to the last two decades development due to GMOs intensified use in addressing various problems in the society.  In the last decade of the 20th century, the Flavor Savr Tomato was genetically produced with great success to alter its ripening characteristics and therefore suite the market demands (Maliga, 845-846).  This development presented the people with a different viewpoint towards GMOs and their possible accrued advantages.  Following this success, scientists gathered courage and cloned a sheep at Roslin Research Center of Scotland in 1997 (Hileman).  Food and Drugs Administration at this point argued that indeed the genetically modified foods were safe for people to consume.  Therefore, the previous requirement for products that were genetically modified to be specially labeled for warning the  consumers of negative impacts was lifted.  Following this consideration by FDA in the year 2002, sharp resistance from GMO opponents immediately emerged not just in the US but globally.  One major question that appears to lack an answer is who between the scientists and the opponents of GMO is indeed telling the truth

Earlier on in the year 1998, the fast growing European Union officials viewed GMOs with contempt and therefore emphasized that all related products be labeled to caution the consumers.  Indeed countries such as France and Czech Republic only allowed a few crops to be produced using genetic engineering.  As Jennifer (349-350) explains the reaction by the greatly cautious European Union sent strong ripples that were further exaggerated or poorly interpreted to reflect GMOs to be bad. Two years later in the year 2000, Russia, Australia and Japan passed legislations that discouraged GMOs and required all related products to have clear warning labels.  In Canada, Jos, Montserrat and Bruce (101-102) report that though GMOs use is considered safe by the government, a tug of war has remained since the onset of the 21st century with several private bills to declare GMOs illegal failing to pass through parliament (Bakshi, 212-214).

Angelika and David (56-57) record that in the year 2004, the United States Department of Agriculture estimated that biotechnology crops in the nation valued about US  44 billion.  Globally, over 8.5 million farmers were growing biotechnology crops in the year 2005 with the number rising to 13.3 million by the year 2008 (Holst-Jensen, 1071-1073).  By the end of year 2010, Richmond (464-466) estimates that the area under genetically modified corn in the United States will rise from the current 17 million acres to about 50 million acres.  Presently, over 1billion acres of land have GMO crops while over 70 of the products in the United States supermarkets shelves have GMO incorporated ingredients (Jennifer, 353-354).

Hategekimana and Beaulieu (2) report that in the year 2001, about 29 of the total corn produced in Canada was from modified seeds.  Beside, 24 of soybeans produced in the same year were also modified.  Quebec and Ontario, the main Soybeans and corn producing regions in Canada further saw the fast rise in the total acreage of the genetically modified crops from the consideration that they were more resistant to pests compared to others.  While explaining the reason why smaller scale farmers (with less than 400 acres) were faster to assimilate GMOs, Hategekimana and Beaulieu (4-6) appears to concur with the views of Verhoog (397) on the reduced demand for more herbicides.  Ball (406-407) reports that about 75 of the Canadian supermarket foods and 30,000 items in the grocery shelves are believed to have GM products.
Key issues related to GMO and theoretical underpinnings

Fear of the unknown
As more people get absorbed into the unending debate on GMOs, one major question that appears to recur is whether indeed the ethics quagmire presented in the case is being viewed correctly to address the problem  The largest concern over introduction and use of GMOs is the fear of the unknown.  Maliga (853-854) argues that despite the security confirmation by scientists at different levels, there is indeed a lot that is not comprehended about the possible latter manifestation of the involved genes and possibility of a widespread disaster. According to the social theory as Wickson (329) explains, decision making should be constructed from the most certain standpoint that creates support by all.  From  past experiences with GMOs on insecticides as Wickson (344-345) argues,  there is a cause for worry.  Application of GMO technology results to their transgenic products getting into contact with many non target species and therefore risking the holistic ecological integrity.  In addition to that, the long term genetic implications of the genetically modified products has lonely remained a subject of speculation as scientists basements are based on laboratory simulations.  However, this is bound to drastically change with the environmental conditions changes being experienced in the globe.

Lack of control for GMOs
In his view, Jos et al (103-104) indicate that people should also be worried of the poor control that characterizes GMOs and their use in the society.  The intensified use of GMO plants in the field has already resulted to major silent disasters as loose genes accidentally pollinate other crops in the field (Bakshi, 219).  Under this consideration, Claudia (75-76) bitterly laments that indeed the problem is loose and can no longer be tamed.  Owing to this consideration, analysts indicate that it might be possible that over 80 of the US population have at one time of the other consumed GMO products (Darrell, 69).  Naturally, plants growing in the field easily cross pollinate to produce higher quality products and therefore promoting biodiversity in any ecosystem. However, cross pollination between GMOs and other plants require further studies to establish the expected results.  Richmond (466) records that Monsanto GMO company have over the years remained in controversy with other local farmers due to cross pollination of their products.  On 30th March of the year 2001, the ruling in favor of the Monsanto Co against a farmer whose plants were pollinated by pollen from neighboring GMO fields was saddening.  As Kaufman reports, the movement of the pollens was beyond the farmer or  companys control.  However, with the law supporting the new GMOs establishment, the farmers are indeed losing their rights to even use local seeds.    

Ecological impacts
Ecological analysts have indicated the need for long term assessment of expected ecosystems implications of GMOs.  As indicated earlier, the escapee genes either in the field through cross pollination or in GMO scientific processes are increasingly polluting the previously existing genetic pool in the ecosystem.  Besides, use of GMO plants is seen as a terminal strategy to many species because they often lack the ability to propagate as experienced with seedless fruits (Verhoog, 391-392).  With the earth system being entirely dependent on ecological interdependence, Fletcher (797-798) argues that there is need to worry about sustainability.  From the invasive species theory, the GMOs are external invasive species and lack the necessary natural enemy a consideration that leads to their domination and making them a key threat to other species.  Every organism in an ecosystem is very critical and operates towards self sustainability.  In contrast to this consideration, GMO made pesticides as Angelika and David (71-73) explains  pose a major threat to pests in the ecosystem and therefore eliminating their critical in the ecosystem to maintain self sustenance. .

How different entities have taken GMOs development and use
As one of the emerging  issues, GMOs developments indeed require careful consideration that can culminate to a harmonically and ethically acceptable conclusion.  As a result various entities have taken the issue differently a cfactor that leads to further controversies from their viewpoints.

Social Movements
The concern on safety of the genetically modified foods has led to many social movements strongly opposing the new technology and its products in the market.  Based on the notion of uncertainty presented to human health, they indicate that it is critical for more studies to be conducted before such products can be released to the market.  According to Holst-Jensen (258-259b), it is argued that food being a major human necessity in life GMOs present the human race with a key threat from their  negative implications.  The Florence Declaration in Global Food Rights as Richmond  (467) explains contributed to the current cold consideration of GMOs in the European Union member countries.  Consequently, most products sold in the European Union are required to have precautionary labels for the consumers.

Environmental groups on the other hand have indicated their dislike of the new technology and consider it to be terminal to ecological sustainability. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as Hileman (11) explains considers use of GMO technology as an additional factor towards threatening more species on the globe.  While referring to the International Convention on Biological Diversity, Verhoog (395-397) indicates that environmental organizations and lobby groups are accusing the United States Food and Drug Administration for failing to reveal all the information on GMO security and therefore posing one of the greatest threats to ecological sanctity and integrity.   Besides, Friends of Earth International (FoEI) has strongly embarked on anti-GMOs campaigns all overt the world and emphasizes on the ecological and human health risks posted by their continued use.  In the year 2004, Friends of Earth facilitated the strong push aimed at reducing the pressure put to Sudan and Angola by USAID and WFP in adopting GM aid donation against their will (Friends of Earth, 1).  Other organizations such as the Humane Society of the United States and Consumer Union of Japan have strongly advised their members and the public to avoid GMO related products as the only way to remain healthy.    

However, World Health organization views the notion of GMOs from a positive viewpoint. WHO indicates that so far, GMOs have been effectively tested and no negative implications have been cited to it (WHO).  However, though WHO indicates its consideration towards addressing the problem of food insecurity, the long term viability of the same has often fallen under strong criticism.  World Health Organization should seek  further emphasis on the impacts to be accrued from GMOs use.

Business community
In his view, Verhoog (399-400) considers the problem of GMO to be simplistic to address, but poorly handled and therefore resulting to extended problems.  As a result, various entities view GMOs with contempt and bias their consideration to their own advantage.  For instance, the business fraternity considers the benefits to be made out of the whole consideration. Due to GMO products ability to maintain a steady supply of the raw materials, it creates stability for their production systems and therefore a guarantee for their market.  Beside, GMO give farmers and other Agri-business stakeholders the advantage of economies of scale (Bakshi, 221-222).  However, this strategy has been likened to poisoning the same fruit basket that one feeds from (McHughen, 86).  In addition to that, the business community considers application of GMO to be even better in that products such as fruits characteristics could easily be changed to suit the market demand and increase their durability. Though the business community considerations are true, they fail to be holistic in factoring the extended ability of the products to support human health and ecological integrity.
One major aspect that GMOs have ultimately resulted to as Vandana (123-124) indicates, is the inherent costs of producing them.  As Vandana continues to say, GMOs unlike the conventional methods, requires the farmers to continuously keep going to the market for seeds to plant every season.  Vandana (129-130) further laments that GMOs have taken a different turn where corporate entities see the chance to reap easy profits.  In India and other third world countries, GMOs seeds companies require that farmers also take specified pesticides for the plants to effectively meet the target returns.

In her article, from seeds of suicide to seeds of hope, Vandana reports that most third world countries are forced to take loans to apply the new genetic engineering technology.  She reports that over the 20,000 farmers in India had committed suicide due to their inability to repay the loans for employing GMO technology in their farms.  Most of the genetically modified plants require almost idealistic weather conditions such as water supply and humidity.  As a result, Kimberly and Teitel (119) indicates results of GMO success presented from third world countries fail to factor these added considerations and are therefore untrue.    

Government
While the social rights movements and the business community appear to take divergent views on GMO, the Canadian government appears to be reading from a different script.  According to Fletcher (797-798), GMO policies of Canada have largely been influenced by scientific guidelines that appear to give a nod to the new technology.  Canada government has since the year 1992 supported biotechnology research and its application in the country.  As a government policy, biotechnology is viewed to present people in the country and indeed in the globe with a sustainable source of food.  In the year 2005, massive demonstrations and call for illegalization of GMOs in the country by social groups such as Greenpeace have been met by a strong resistant force from the Canadian government (Richmond, 467).  Failure of the standing committee to convince the government to change the biotechnology laws has resulted to GMO products remaining legal to produce and use in the country.

Key questions on GMO
Which approach you believe to be mostleast promising
The social movements approach which requires harmony to be established between the products considerations of reality appears to be more promising in that it factors the demands of human beings first.  Jane and Lee (39-40) agree with the social movements consideration that  indeed GMOs present a high level of uncertainty to the people and therefore the need to take effective caution. In addition, their emphasis on ecological sustainability presents their inter-generational concerns for mankind.  On the other hand, though governments have the overriding forces in influencing the use of biotechnology, it is no doubt that their supporters are fast becoming highly polarized and may eventually face mass resistance as more people through unions and social movements join the fight (David,  Cocklin and Jacqui , 145-147).

Where is cooperation required and where it is unlikely
To effectively address the current dilemma, cooperation must be exercised by the different stakeholder.  As central legislative authorities, the governments should seek to bring together other stakeholders with regard to the contentious areas that are critical towards reducing the current uncertainty.  Particularly, Angelika and David (81-82) suggest areas related to research should be expanded to bring specialists of the government, the social movements and the business community.  In addition, there should be even greater cooperation in areas of health to determine the suitability of GMO products to human health.  However, with genetic engineering beings a highly technological initiative, it will be hard to cooperate in areas of environment where the resulting products such as pollen from genetically modified rice move to the local plantations (Jeroen, 593-594).

Most critical questions to be answered for this topic
Why has the GMOs dilemma persisted for a long time
Are the presented theoretical considerations genuine and oriented towards addressing the problem
What has or is being done to address the problem in the society
What are the international considerations of the problem
Are there signs that the problem will be addressed in the near future
What measures further stapes should stakeholders take to address the problem
Are there certain theoretical perspectives dominant or excluded by those addressing the issue

While addressing the problem of GMO by the governments as the central authority and the peoples representatives on key issues, Bakshi (224) argues that there is great omission of ethical concerns.  Fletcher (797-798) argues that though feeding the people is indeed very crucial, it is more dangerous to threaten their health because of two core factors.  First, the expected negative results are unclear and therefore making it even harder to prepare for it.  Then the resulting problem may indeed obscure the benefits that had been accrued and perhaps form an expanded basis.  For example, if use of GMO products results to ecological breakdown, the resulting implication which could include climate change, irregular weather patterns, and loss of biodiversity are very hard to restore (Wickson, 331-333).

Explain how this research has changed or enhanced your opinion. What will you as an individual can do as a result of your research

Over the years, I have held the opinion that genetically modified organisms are the best way to go and opponents were not genuine.  Particularly, the reports and pictures of starving people strengthened my conclusion.  As a result, my mind became highly polarized towards the problem as opposed to holistically analyzing it and its possible negative implications.  However, this study has effectively revealed new insights on related problems that should be considered simultaneously if the food problem is to be addressed effectively.  There is need to assess the possible future impacts of using GMO in the society before it can be considered safe.  In addition, it is crucial to involve all the stakeholders in the society and therefore incorporate their concerns to gather greater support at all levels of GMO technology.  To effectively address it therefore, it must be viewed for the global point of vie as opposed to the localized outlook.  Finally, I will seek to create a forum that can bring together major stakeholders through dialogue on key issues and therefore harmonize their understanding on the problem.  From this forum, I will seek to expand the involvement of the different professionals and therefore make key recommendations that could be assimilated to address the problem.

Summary and conclusion
Technological advancements in the globe remain some of the most important aspects for the human kind existence.  GMOs present the apex of the historical search for the answer to the food problem in the society. However, the controversy emerging form the same technological application was brought out in the paper to have culminated to the current dilemma between the different entities in the community.  The key issues presented in this document came out to be very critical and pertinent to the whole world.  The fear of unknown was presented to bring key rifts between the implementing units mostly the government and the social movements.  Ecological impacts and poor control of the different GMO products were further considered to increase the overall threats that people and the ecosystems are faced with.  Various stakeholders differing viewpoints further led to intensification of the dilemma as it appears to have shifted from the ethical orientation to economic competition among them.

From the above discussion, the problems posted by GMO technology application are very crucial and require urgent address due to the looming uncertainty.  As a result this paper concludes by supporting the thesis statement, though invention and development of genetically modified organisms has remained a center of controversy for long, its assimilation and full application requires a more in-depth evaluation to facilitate holistic address of the current global food problems. The technology must be employed with greater openness and future focus to reduce the negative implications arising from it.  In addition to that, there must be clear cooperation between the different stakeholders in addressing the problem with the main focus being sustainability. Comparing the past and the future it is no doubt that the future is indeed brighter owing to the high level criticism that seeks improvement while inferring the least minimal impacts.

An invasive species can be defined as a species that causes environmental and economic harm to human beings, plants and animals (Simberloff, 1996). Hemlock wooly adelgig is aphid- like small insect approximately 0.8 mm in length. Its oval in nature with reddish brown color or purple and black in color.

This species can be identified by dry wooly wax substance found on its body as it matures. The wooly was substance is almost 3 mm or more in diameter and it is used for protecting its body as well as its eggs from enemies (Cheah, et al 2000). The species is scientifically known as adelges tsugae. It was introduced around 1951, near a place called Richmond in eastern part of U.S where it infested almost halfway of the western and mountain hemlock trees. It was later reported in Virginia in 2005, then to other places like Georgia, Maine, among others. After its introduction in eastern America, the species was said to have led to extensive decline in trees in the area (U.S.D.A, 2005). The mode of dispersal of hemlock wooly adelgig is either by wind, birds and other mammals that come into contact with the species.

Hemlock wooly adelgig is a dangerous species as it devastating ecological effects. Some of the problems of hemlock are as follows

It causes faster decline in health of the trees which may be followed by quick death and if not controlled immediately, the tree can die in a period less than a year. The introduction of adelgig did not only bring threats to hemlock tree but also to species like bird which use the tree for nesting purposes, food sources. It also affected many trees that uses hemlock stands as its shelter or habitat

It affects the regulation of water temperatures in area they are found

It also affects the survival of various species of animals.

It affects other services of the ecosystem. For example, it leads to greater changes in the cycle of nitrogen among other problems.

From the above effects, it is evident that this invasive species affects the whole ecosystem (Cheah, et al 2000).  

Fighting the dangers of invasive species will be the most important and cost effective strategy for the nation to deal with adverse effects experienced in the ecosystem by introduction of the invasive species. However, it has increasingly proved difficult to control Hemlock wooly adelgig due to its fluffy body surface.  Two most important methods that have been used in controlling the species include mechanical control and use of predators (Simberloff, 1996).

Mechanical control involves the use of different types of machines. For instance in Florida they use volunteer convicted labourforce to cut paperbank trees and this helps eradicate the tree (Simberloff, 1996). In case of Hemlock wooly adelgig, eggs and crawlers are dislodged from hemlock twigs by wind and sometimes by rain. This means that streams of water can be used to dislodge eggs and crawlers especially between April and June and also clipping away twigs infested with the species can control the species (Cheah, et al, 2000).
Most predators are ineffective in controlling hemlock adelgig although there are some exotic insects that were identified which are natural predators of the species. For instance beetle is one of the most effective predator of hemlock wooly adelgig (HWA), it has also been very vital in checking the population of HWA in control in Japan. It suits control of HWA due to its various characteristics like being mobile and feeding mostly on HWA (Cheah, et al, 2000).

The fact that the world is witnessing a continuous but steady decrease is the global ozone layer is raising many concerns for the future existence of mankind. This is first because such depletions in the ozone layer are evidently increasing the amount of ultraviolet blue (UVB) rays on earth. UVB rays have been identified to have the potential of increasing skin cancer infection on earth (Parson 46). It should be noted here that the ozone layer serves to absorb the UVB rays from the sun.

Still feared is that ozone layer depletion could lead to increased ultraviolet radiations on the earth surface thus increasing the size of the troposphere ozone, an element which poses great health risk to humanity (Brooks). This makes ozone depletion a major threat to the future existence of mankind.

This paper is written as a research on the causes of ozone depletion. The author first gives a definition of ozone layer before giving an elaborative discussion on what causes ozone layer depletion. A discussion on the effects and how such can be reduced is also given.

Definition of ozone layer and ozone depletion
Ozone layer can be defined as the layer of gas in the stratosphere which serves to protect the earth from the effects of harmful ultraviolet radiation produced by the sun (Coffey). It is worth stating here that the ozone is just a colorless gas formed when ultraviolet radiations react with oxygen in the upper atmosphere of earth. Ozone layer depletion on the other side can be simply defined ass the gradual decline in the volume of the ozone in the earths upper atmosphere (stratosphere) (Books). This gradual depletion of the zone has been approximated to be at the rate of 14 percent per decade since 1970s (Brooks).

Ozone depletion has also been defined as the seasonal decline in the ozone in the stratosphere relative to the polar region of the earths surface (Go). This is usually called ozone hole and is found to be periodic but at a higher rate than 14 percent per decade. A good example is the 70 percent reduction of ozone in the Antarctica reported in 1985 (Hardy 112). It is however worth noting here that there is still another form of ozone depletion called troposphere ozone depletion. This type is usually evident near the earth surface particularly in the Polar Regions during the spring season.

Effects of ozone layer depletion
There many effects of ozone depletion. However, the most evident one is increase in ultraviolet radiations into the earth surface (Go). This has been closely attributed to the fact that ozone layer is responsible for the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sun. This increase in UV radiations on earth has been proved to have the potential of increasing the rates of skin cancer infections in the human community.
Ozone depletion has also been found to be the reason behind the decrease in stratospheric and troposphere temperatures (Coffey). This is closely associated with the fact that reductions in the ozone layer increase the passage of ultraviolet radiations to the earth surface. It is here to be understood that the upper troposphere and the stratosphere are usually warmed by the radiations absorbed by the ozone. This is a reason behind global warming.

Causes of ozone depletion
Although many have claimed natural causes of ozone depletion, most of the qualified causes of ozone depletion are due to mankind activities. The main cause of ozone depletion is the ever increasing number radical particles in the upper atmosphere (Brooks). Such include hydroxyl and nitric radicals. Others like chlorine and bromine have also a crucial function in causing ozone depletion. It is evidently clear from scientific research finding that the ozone layer is a colorless gas resulting from the reaction of ultraviolet radiations and oxygen in the stratosphere (Hardy 117). Still clear is the fact that radical particles have a high affinity for oxygen. This means that the presence of such radical particles will reduces chances of forming ozone thus leading to its reduction.

It is however to be noted that 80 percent of ozone depletion is caused by the presence of chlorofluorocarbons and hydroflourocarbons in the upper atmosphere (Brooks). Scientific finding evidently show that this compound is quite stable in the lower atmosphere. It is nevertheless clear that the compound breaks down in the stratosphere releasing atomic chlorine due to the influence of ultraviolet radiation. The atomic chlorine, while in the stratosphere is found to live in a cycle of make-break molecules. It first reacts with a molecule of the ozone gas forming a molecule of oxygen and chlorine monoxide (Parson 54). The chlorine monoxide further reacts with another ozone molecule forming chlorine atom and oxygen. This means that the chlorine atom can now repeat the reaction process again. This is what makes chlorofluorocarbons a major cause of ozone layer depletion as the reaction process continues infinitely.

Halons are also another major cause of ozone layer (Coffey). Though scientific thought to be safe and inert, such chemical components are quite detrimental once they degrade in the stratosphere. The most common threat to the ozone layer is the bromine atom (Hardy 119). Once in the upper atmosphere, halogen degrades due to influence of the high energy ultraviolet radiations presence. This leads to the production of bromine which reacts with the ozone gas molecules the same way as chlorine atom. It is to be noted here that scientist have evidently claimed that halons last over 100 years (Go). This means that once in the stratosphere their reaction with the ozone layer will last those many years. It is there clear that chlorofluorocarbons and halons are the biggest threat to ozone depletion (Parson 61). This is further complicated by the fact that such components are still being produced and used across the globe.

Other man made causes of ozone depletion include chemical components like methyl bromide and methyl chloroform (Go). It is worthy noting here that such chemical are widely used in the community for making pesticides and as industrial solvents respectively. This means that they are crucial factor in the ozone depletion problem. Still clear is the fact that once in the upper atmosphere, methyl bromide break to produce bromine while the methyl chloroform degrades to form atomic chlorine (Coffey). Just to be made clear here, it ha been evidently established through research that bromine atoms are much more reactive and thus more destructive to the ozone than chlorine atoms.

It has also been established that ozone hole as found in the Antarctica can be caused by the reactions between the polar stratospheric clouds (Parson 63). This is because such reactions are the reason behind the low stratosphere temperature. It is to be noted here that lowering of stratospheric temperature is due to reductions in the ozone layer thus increasing the amount of ultraviolet radiations reaching the earth surface. It is based on this reasoning that reactions between polar stratospheric clouds lead to ozone depletion.

Conclusion
In conclusion, it is evidently clear from the research findings tat the major cause of ozone depletion is mankind. This is because he is the major producer of halons and chlorofluorocarbons which are the leading causes of ozone layer depletion. It should be in the interest of saving the future of humanity that the right measures and devoted cooperation should be adopted to eliminate andor reduces the production of such components in the society.

Established in 1975, the Commercial Bank of Qatar (CBQ) is said to be the first private bank in the country. CBQ has QR 500 million in reserves and capital for the year ending 2006 with total assets up to QR 25 billion. CBQ has shown consistent profitability ever since its inception (AMEinfo.com, 2010). CBQ offers retail, investment and corporate and Islamic banking services. It has over 23 branches, 26 deposit machines and over 100 ATMs.

This paper is a comprehensive analysis of the Commercial Bank of Qatar and aims to provide an understanding of the organization.

CBQs Organizational Chart
Structure of an organization is determined by the size, type and management style of the organization. CBQ has adopted the divisional management structure. This structure enables an organization to be divided into smaller units with little autonomy.

The above organizational structure combines maximum adaptability and flexibility with total cohesion. C.E.O is the head of the organization and hence responsible for managing strategic affairs. Deputy C.E.O is responsible for managing the Al Safa Islamic Division of CBQ. On the other hand, Chief Operating Officer (COO) is responsible for management of the various banking services provided by CBQ (CBQ.com).
The Chief Finance and Strategy Officer is responsible for overlooking the Finance and Strategic Planning function of CBQ. The Chief Risk Officer is responsible for overall risk of the organization. Chief of Human Resources is responsible for overlooking the human resources function of the organization. Executive GM
Chief Legal Officer Charge on the other hand is responsible for legal affairs of the organization.

EGM, Retail Banking
He is responsible for overlooking and providing strategic direction to the consumer banking division of CBQ.

EGM, Corporate Banking
He is responsible for overlooking and providing strategic direction for the corporate banking division of CBQ.

EGM Investment Banking
The role of the EGM in Investment banking is to ensure that this function of the bank is working in accordance with its objectives.

My Role (Retail Branch Manger)
The job description for the retail branch manager entails overall management of the branch, driving branch sales targets, ensuring efficient customer service.

Retail manager is also responsible for working towards maximizing new business opportunities, management of risk and strengthening existing relationships.

The uses of accounts, money, and financial transactions in CBQ
At CBQ nearly 50 of the commercial and corporate loan books revolve around the contracting and the real estate markets exposure. There are a number of documents used in transactions within the bank, some of them include

Letters of credit filled up by clients who want to credits facilities from the bank.

Application forms filled by new members being recruited to the bank
Guarantee applications these are forms filled by guarantors who guarantee other clients
Demand draft requests the banks send out these forms to clients reminding the client of outstanding payment.
Fund transfer requests these are forms filled by clients requesting the bank to transfer money to other accounts either internally or externally.

Cheques brought by clients to be deported to their accounts, the cheque can be either from our bank or other banks.

Cash deposit slips filled by clients when depositing their cash.

Withdrawal slips signed by the clients after withdrawing their cash from the bank.

Cash Receipt received by the bank upon purchasing various items from its suppliers.

LPO (Local Purchase Orders) Given by the bank to suppliers who are to supply huge amounts of goods or services.

Delivery Notes signed by the bank upon receiving certain goods from its suppliers

Financial indicators
In assessing the financial performance of an organization the following need to be considered

Balance sheet
It provides an insight into the financial position of an organization at a specified date (usually period end date). It provides a gross overview of the banks assets, liabilities and shareholders equity.

Trading and profit and loss account
Also known as the income statement, it provides an overview over the financial performance of an organization over a specified period. Profit and loss account provides monetary details of income and expenses of a business.

Share price performance
If the bank is recording positive results, it is certain that its share price on the stock market will go up enticing new investors to invest in the bank, whereas if the financial performance is poor then will result in investors selling their shares forcing the share price to fall.

Key highlights of financial performance (of FY2008)
Operating income increase by 42.5  hitting QR 2.8 billion from QR 1.9billion
Net profit shot by 22.4 to reach QR 1.7 Billion
Net assets went up by 35 to hit QR 61.billion

CBQs Sources of Finance
The main sources of finance in any entity are debt and equity finance. Both sources of finance have significant benefits and therefore an optimal mix of both these sources is recommended in order to effectively utilize these sources of finance. Finance raised through equity can be achieved either by retaining an entitys earnings i.e. by re-investing them in the business or through a new stock issue. Debt financing on the other hand has tax benefits and hence is an attractive source of finance however excessive borrowing can raise the gearing position of a company to alarming levels (Charles  Jones, 26).

Internally generated capital
Internally generated sources of capital for Commercial Bank of Qatar comprise of the banks assets and retained earnings. Retained earnings a risk free source of finance and CBQ has continued to pay appropriate dividends along with adequate re-investment of retained earnings.

External borrowing
The bank can also increase its finances through borrowing from external sources. Interest rates a major concern when utilizing external borrowing and significantly depend on the gearing position of an entity. Commercial Bank of Qatar is not highly geared and has a moderate level of borrowings.

Stock issue
Commercial Bank of Qatar could also raise finance through a new stock issue. Although a stock issue is usually interest free and comprises of nominal transaction costs but could result in significant dilution of the present shareholding of the bank. Therefore a rights issue could be appropriate before making a new stock issue (EconomyWatch.com).

Economic and political impacts and globalization
CBQ is not exempt from the global impact of policies formulated by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Any proposed changes in their policies significantly affect the operations of CBQ as well.  
Increased globalization has greatly affected business worldwide. In recent years, Commercial Bank of Qatar has expanded on a global scale. It has opened new branches in different geographical regions and hence become an international bank. However due to increased internationalization of its functions, CBQ has become exposed to foreign exchange risk. Exchange rate risk is basically the risk that foreign currency receipts or payments might devalue due to adverse exchange rate movements and is among the biggest threats faced by organizations operating globally. Therefore, CBQ also needs to take stock of the situation and employ both hedging and non-hedging techniques in order to mitigate foreign exchange risk. Non hedging techniques are techniques which do not utilize derivatives in order to mitigate foreign currency risk. Hedging techniques are those techniques which utilize derivates in order to overcome the exchange rate risk of an organization.

CBQs Organizational Culture
The Commercial Bank of Qatar comprises of a strong organizational culture which has developed over the years. It reflects both respect and dignity. Senior management at CBQ is adequately authoritative and understands the need to empower employees in order to increase efficiency of the organization. CBQ boasts of a conducive work environment and therefore all employees in the organization are required to deal with their fellow employees in a respectful manner. Furthermore, CBQ has also ensured the provision of an appropriate channel for employees to voice their concerns. Bureaucracy is considered to be a norm in banking institutions and is something which is found in the worlds largest banks as well. It is the major reason behind the existence of internal politics in banks. CBQ doesnt claim to have a non-bureaucratic culture and it is imperative that there would be at least some internal politics. However, since CBQ has resolved to become among the top international banks steps have been taken to minimize bureaucracy and subsequent internal politics. (CBQ.com, 2010).

Solving problems
CBQ has a stringent ethical policy which is followed in both letter and spirit. Since the bank continues to pursue increased internationalization therefore it rightfully understands the need to have a sound ethical policy and its need to be understood across the organization. For example an employee should voice his or her concern with the reporting line manager first. The onus is on the line manager then to do the needful. The line manager needs to accommodate the concerns of both parties to dispute and resolve the issue in accordance with the banks policies and principles. Where an employee has a dispute with the line manager, it is only then that an employee should directly voice his or her concern with the HR personnel (Connolly, 10).

Corporate Social Responsibility
In order to ensure Qatars industrial development, the bank has sponsored various government projects in various fields (AMEinfo.com). CBQ is actively engaged in community based activities such as educational improvement, environmental management, sponsorship of healthcare services, infrastructural development, etc.

Sustainability is a pressing issue for organizations around the world. Although CBQ is not an industrial concern but CBQ has taken adequate measures to ensure sustainability of the family health. CBQ in collaboration with the Qatar Foundation have financed the establishment of the Qatar Center for Marital Counseling. This center vows to promote healthy living standards for families in Qatar.

Conclusion
Organizational culture and workplace ethics plays an important role in corporate management. Understanding of the organizational culture enables correct decision making which doesnt result in discrimination of employees and in fact seek to fulfill their needs and expectations. An adequate understanding will also assist in reshaping the organizational culture as and when needed.

In 2008, they were awarded the Eco Brand of the Year award during the Volvo Ecodesign Forum at the Munichs ISPO Trade Show. It was the first company in California to utilize renewable sources such as solar and wind in powering its entire buildings as well as one of the initial companies to use recycled paper in printing catalogues. The companys logo, the skyline of Cerro Fitzroy, speaks openly about their objective, to always be environment friendly (Sam, 2008). The company in description is none other than Patagonia.

Patagonia incorporation is based in Ventura California and mainly focuses on the production of outdoor clothing. It was started by Yvon Chouinard in 1960s and 70s and at that period, the company emerged as the largest maker of climbing equipment. The company continued to grow and it later expanded into outdoor apparel and at the same time maintaining the rule that the business closed whenever optimal surfing weather and waves were achieved (Valdes, 2008). This essay is aimed at researching Patagonia Inc. showing why other companies should emulate it.

Mission Statement
Patagonias mission statement is Build the best product, cause no unnecessary harm, use business to inspire and implement solutions to the environmental crisis (Patagonia, 2010). This mission statement is very important to the operations of the company and it explains while it is committed to making the best products in quality but also not causing unnecessary harm to the environment. The companys values replicate those of a business that was began by a group of surfers and climbers as well as the minimalist style which they promoted. The company has taken an approach towards product design that demonstrates a bias for utility and simplicity (Patagonia, 2010).

Business model
Patagonia business model raises great amount for environmental concern and the companys technological innovation is aimed at reducing their products environmental impact. The management of the company has found out unambiguous ways of coupling the products function as well as the environmental values of the brands. The company promotes a philosophy that blends work with family, play and environmental passion (Article 13, 2006).  

Products
Patagonia makes a rage of various products that include outdoor clothing, gear, luggage and footwear. The company specifically produces soft shells, hard shells, ski jackets, rain jackets, ski pants, sportswear, organic cotton clothing, and Patagonia fleece.  It also makes products for sports such as hiking, alpine climbing, yoga, trail running, world travel, surfing, mountain biking, kayaking, disc golf, camping and snowboarding. Moreover, they also make women and children clothing (Patagonia, 2010).

Financial information
It is interesting to realize the owner of Patagonia is concerned that his company is growing so fast. Reliable sources indicate that the companys revenue growth is between 3 and 8  annually. To make things more interesting, since 1985 the company has donated US  26 million to organizations engaging in environmental conservation. By the year 2006, the company had a turnover of US  240 million and by 2008, the company sales stood at US  275 and it had 1300 employees (Valdes, 2008).

Human resource
The owner of Patagonia Incorporation is Yvon Chournard. He is known to regard his employees so much that he addresses them each by name and this has made them love him so much. To get a job with Patagonia is not an essay task. Wherever there arises a job opening, the company receives about six hundred applications. The means that to be employed in the company, one has to be diligent as the owner of the company is a perfectionist. By 2007, the companys chief executive officer was Casey Sheahan. By the year 2006, the company had one thousand two hundred employees (Casey, 2007).

The company has also introduced the Patagonia Employee Internship Program which allows employees to leave their jobs at Patagonia for a maximum of two months to work with any environmental group that they have chosen. The employees salaries and benefits are paid in full during such periods and the environmental group does not need to pay them even a single dollar. Since the program was initiated in 1993, over five hundred employees have already worked as interns in different groups worldwide. The company has family friendly policies for its employees that include two months leave (paid) for parents who have gotten a baby, child care subsidies, release for competitive athletes, parents education, and company buses to transport children from schools to the companys offices among others (Article 13, 2006).

Environmental support policies
Patagonia has been credited for its policies towards environmental conservation, particularly in its generous contribution to several environmental groups. The company has always committed one percent of its total sales or ten percent of its total profits, depending on which between the two is more, to environmental associations. Currently, Patagonia has already donated over US  30 to more than one thousand organizations. The incorporation is one of the co-founders of Alliance 1 For the Planet, an association of businesses that have purposed to commit not less than 1 of their sum sales to environmental development. Patagonia has often featured environmental campaigns in companys advertisements and catalogues. One of the most recent campaigns was aimed at avoiding the drilling of oil in the Alaska Wildlife Refuge. It was entitled Ocean as a wilderness (Patagonia, 2010).

The company has also established the Concervacion Patagonica, which is a non-profit organization aimed at protecting wild-land biodiversity and ecosystem in regions such as Argentina and Chile. The organization has the objective of establishing Patagonia National Park that will be approximately the size of Californias Yosemite National Park (Patagonia, 2010).

When Yvon Chouinard was starting Patagonia he had a vision of having a business that would not release toxins into the water bodies, or alter endless growth or cause nervous breakdown. He was determined to make high quality products, which were however to be made in the most responsible way possible (Patagonia, 2010).

There are several programs that the company has initiated in the past that vividly show that it is committed to conserving the environment. For example in 1994, the owner of Patagonia, Chouinard instructed his managers to switch to organic cotton instead of traditionally grown cotton. This is because the latter depends on noxious defoliants and pesticides which are destructive to the environment.  Though such an act would increase the production costs as getting organic cotton was hard at that time, he insisted and the deal paid off with the companys sales rising by twenty five percent. The demand for organic cotton rose and the prices went down (Casey, 2007).

The company began accepting polyester, fleece and organic cotton and nylon products for recycling.

Recycling is home run meaning that seventy six percent of energy is conserved than if they were to use virgin petroleum. The use of chlorine was replaced by slow wash, a technique that is patented. It also started using a crushed crab shells-made product for odor control in underwear lines instead of antimicrobial silver which is a ground water pollutant (Casey, 2007).

When the company realized that airfreight needs eight times energy more than shipping, it began convincing the customers to choose waiting for a longer period before their products were delivered to them.  Chouinard advised them to ask yourself if you really need that pair of pants sent overnight (Casey, 2007). Despite all this, the companys owner has made it clear that it can never be totally socially responsible. It will never make a totally sustainable, non-damaging product. But it is committed to trying (Casey, 2007).

Conclusion
Patagonia Inc. is a role model in the current business world and that is why it should be emulated by others. First, it is committed to be as less destructive to the environment as possible. The company has shown in the past that it is ready to pay any cost to do away with products and processes that damage the environment without caring much about the cost implications. Such moves includes removing the conventionally grown cotton as well as allowing its employees to work for any environmental groups of their choice while at the same time paying them their full salaries and allowances. The company has also committed a percentage of its income in supporting environmental friendly groups which amounts to over US  30 million. The company should also be emulated in the way it treats its employees. Despite the fact that diligence is not compromised, the management always considers policies that are family-friendly which includes caring for children and allowing paid leave for the employees who have given birth or who are nursing the sick. These are policies of a company that is not only aiming at maximizing profits but that has environmental and employees issues at heart. This is a company worth emulating.

Food borne illness can be described as a disease which is either infectious or toxic in nature and is caused by agents that gain entry into the body through food. Every individual is at risk of contracting food borne illness. Food borne illness is quite prevalent and it is a growing public health concern in both developed and undeveloped countries. It is difficult to estimate the occurrence of food borne diseases globally, but the current reports put it that in 2005 only 1.8 million people succumbed to diarrhoal diseases. A big portion of this figure can be related to food and drinking water contamination (Clark, 2005).

In developed countries the percentage of people suffering from food borne disease each year is estimated at 30. U.S. alone recorded about 76 million cases of food borne illness which led to 325,000 people being admitted in hospitals and 5, 000 succumbing to the illness. Each year the figure recorded is almost close to that. Developing countries records the highest number of cases due to the presence of various food borne disease together with those caused by parasites. This fact is not well documented. The frequent occurrences of diarrhoal diseases in developing countries indicate the major underlying problem of food safety (Center for Foodborne Illness Research  Prevention, 2009).

Most food borne diseases are sporadic and most of the times not reported. It can result in a huge portion of the population suffering. A good example on how food borne disease can be serious is a case of salmonellosis of 1994 in America which resulted from eating contaminated ice cream and affected about 224,000 people. Another example is that of hepatitis A which occurred in China in 1988. It resulted from eating contaminated clams and it affected about 300,000 people (Clark, 2005).

The food safety measures which are derived from biotechnology require careful scrutiny. In order to provide scientific basis for decision making concerning human health, new methods and policies to asses current policies need to be developed and agreed upon internationally. The evaluation should reflect on health benefits and possible harmful health implications. Food crops should be modified so as to resist pests and foods having allergens withdrawn from the market. The assessment should include weighing the possible risk factors and benefits which can be derived from biotechnology. There is also need for clear communication of the basis for safety for the biologically modified foods both at national and international levels (Center for Foodborne Illness Research  Prevention, 2009).

There have been changes in animal husbandry practices which have been ignored by the existing food safety policies and measures. Changes like feeding may have serious impacts on food safety. Example of such a change is the increased feeding meat and bone meal from ruminants to cattle has played a significant role in the emergence bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Another practice which has not been checked is the addition of low levels of antibiotics to animal feeds so as to enhance growth rate. This practice results in transfer of antibiotics resistance to human pathogens (Clark, 2005).

With modern intensive agricultural practice, foods have become more affordable and available. Use of food additives has also improved the quality, quantity, and safety of food supply. Although this practice is contributing positively to food availability, appropriate controls have not been put in place to ascertain their proper and safe use across the food chain. Review of the foods before they are delivered to the market is also ignored in the current policies. If this is enacted, it will ensure safe use of agricultural chemicals like pesticides, veterinary drugs and also food additives (Clark, 2005).

Conclusion
In summary, the current food safety policies and measures have various loopholes which do not ensure food safety. There is dire need to review these policies once more and put in place measures which will ensure that the food availed in the market is fit for human consumption. Since developing countries lead in the number of victims of food borne diseases, the set standard should be made to cut across the globe.

This paper throws insight into Canadas stance on green gas emission reduction by considering Canadas involvement in climate change policy over the past three decades. Canada failed in its commitment to meet the 2 C target, thereby failing to mitigate the effects of global warming. Canadas awareness and involvement in global warming programs started early in the 1970s but its real achievements are far less. Instead, it has lapses. Canada has the potential to contribute effectively towards reduction of green house gas emission provided it (1) captures and stores carbon dioxide (2) reduce fugitive emissions (3) increase energy efficiency (4) increase production of renewable energy and (5) replace fossil fuels by cleaner electricity.

David Suzuki Foundation suggests Canada can meet a 2 C target in 2020 along with a strong growing economy and high quality of life. All this is possible at the cost of steady job creation across the country. Canada has to be meaningful in adopting science based target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Though it is challenging, it is very much possible. Canada should come forward to pay 3 to 4 of the global costs, which would amount to US140 billion per year.

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study
When environmental concerns are haunting the whole world, Canada is no exception and bears greater responsibility in bringing down the emission level. Canadians are always part of major summits and conferences but their overall contribution to global warming is very disappointing till date. The emissions increased above the Koyoto target (Greenpeace  European Renewable Energy Council, 2009, p.2). The reduction level of emissions falls far short of the science based target. It is reported that Canada was not serious in controlling GHG emissions. For the past eight years, Canadas efforts are feeble in combating global warming. But the people of Canada are keen on meeting climate targets even if it involves some cost.
The environmental and economic challenges are high for Canada in the coming years. Canada has to follow credible solutions to achieve results by 2020. Though it is difficult, the results could be seen at the later stage. The leading organizations like David Suzuki Foundation foresee a positive outlook in Canadas climate change policy. The 2009 United Nations Climate Conference in Copenhagen was conducted to strengthen the Kyoto Protocol via reduction of greenhouse gas emission to considerable levels (Greenpeace  European Renewable Energy Council, 2009, p.1). Canada has to be meaningful in adopting science based target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Though it is challenging, it is very much possible.

Statement of the Problem
In 2002, Canada agreed to reduce greenhouse emissions by 6 in Koyoto Protocol. But the emissions increased to 34 above the Koyoto target. The reduction level of emissions by only 3 below the 1990 level by 2020 falls far short of the science based target. Also, Canada is among the worst in the world for per capita emissions at 22.7 tons per person.  The Harper government failed to keep up the promise before reaching the Copenhagen conference. The Governments plan also prevents industrial polluters reducing emissions because of technology fund at a relatively low cost. The solution ahead for Canada is to aim for rigorous policy making and following them seriously to bring considerable reduction in green gas emission. This is achievable without loosing its economy and by providing a peaceful lifestyle for the people.

Research Questions
To meet the goals and purpose of this study, four research questions were explored
What is Canadas commitment and their contribution to climate changes Did Canada curtail high Green house gas emission
Has Canada achieved the 2 C target What Canada was doing instead
How the impacts are going to be if Canada is not serious about the issue
In spite of Canadas tardy approach to climate changes in the past, will it be able to do better in the future by drafting better policies and following them seriously.

Definition of Terms
Protocol   A protocol is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law
Global Warming  an increase in the average temperature of the earths atmosphere
GDP - The gross domestic product, a basic measure of an economys economic performance.
Koyoto Protocol  Industrial agreement negotiated in 1997 in Kyoto (Japan) between industrialized countries.

Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature

Canada is in the forefront of environmental concerns right from early 1970s. Canadians played a major role in summits and conferences relating to global warming. For example, Maurice Strong was the secretary general of 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm and at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. Jim MacNeill was the secretary general of the World Commission on Environment and Development (Bernstein, 2008, p. 5). However, Canadas contribution towards global warming throughout is displeasing.

It is disappointing that the Canadian government has not fully committed to meaningful action with a national approach to climate change (Bernstein, 2008, p. 4). The provincial governments in Canada as well are looking out for policies to meet the expectations of Canadian citizens. Indulging in emission reduction process poses a big challenge.

In 2002, Canada agreed to reduce greenhouse emissions by 6 in Koyoto Protocol. But the emissions increased to 34 above the Koyoto target (Greenpeace  European Renewable Energy Council, 2009, p.2). The reduction level of emissions to only 3 below the 1990 level by 2020 falls far short of the science based target. Also, Canada is among the worst in the world for per capita emissions at 22.7 tons per person (Greenpeace  European Renewable Energy Council, 2009, p.2). The Harper government failed to keep up the promise before reaching the Copenhagen conference. The Governments plan also prevents industrial polluters reducing emissions because of technology fund at a relatively low cost (Greenpeace  European Renewable Energy Council, 2009, p.3). It is important to note that Canada failed to act seriously to control GHG emissions a couple decades ago. However, it can compensate that by genuinely following GHG reductions through cost effective ways and through international investments. This will also create opportunities for Canada to export clean technologies (Bramley, Sadik  Marshall, 2009, p.13).

The environment minister of Canada Jim Prentice in one of his speech said Canada would aim for a shared target with the United States for a cleaner electricity, common fuel efficiency standards and a common target for bio-fuels. For the past eight years, Canada has put in only feeble efforts to combat global warming. Canada bettered United States marginally in green gas emission reductions but still far from its own 2020 target set by science (Demerse, 2009). Canadas climate policies favor the companies operating in Albertas oil sands. The people of Canada want the climate targets to be based on the advice of scientists even if it involves some cost. Now Canada has to follow a globally integrated policy that works internally as well as globally (Bernstein, 2008).

Environment and economy are both inextricably linked and discussed in the Canadian political arena in the past decades. However, it yielded more heat than light in the past decades (Sadik, 2009, p.1). The challenge ahead now is how both economy and environment will intersect and lead the country up to 2020.

Canada has to follow credible solutions to bring down emission by 2020 through scientific methods. Drafting policies in this regard might involve a greater risk in terms of economy and trade. The fruitful results could be seen at a later stage much beyond where the decision makers would have left the office then.

Canadas economy always grows stronger and the case is going to be true in the next ten years in spite of its biggest trading partners not matching Canadas carbon price. Two thirds of Canadas economy comprises of service sector and the rest are involved in industrial activity by utilizing carbon.

The clear objective of reducing global warming is very well within the reach of Canada without hampering the economic growth. The leading organizations like David Suzuki Foundation foresee a positive outlook in Canadas climate change policy. According to a study by David Suzuki Foundation, Canada can meet a 2 deg C target in 2020 and in parallel have a strong growing economy and high quality of life. All this is possible at the cost of steady job creation across the country (Bramley, Sadik  Marshall, 2009). According to Matthew Bramley, the director of climate change for the Pembina Institute, Canada can implement much stronger climate policies than the United States and can still prosper economically. This will be a fair contribution for countries like Canada towards global reduction in emissions. Initially, itll look like a more difficult task than it really is because it involves understanding and drafting policies and putting government and people on the routine. Devising economy wisely in the next ten years is also very important. Though the initial costs might look slightly on the higher side, the country is going to reap the benefits at a later stage.
Policymaking requires analytical tools in the field of science, economics, politics and law. A feasible, fair and sensitive to regional, national and international outcome is what is important while achieving the climate change target. It is the right time for Canada to act now to avoid serious impact of climate changes now and in the near future (Bernstein, 2008, p. 4).

To achieve a major reduction in GHG emissions, Canada has to (1) capture and store carbon dioxide (2) reduce fugitive emissions (3) increase energy efficiency (4) increase production of renewable energy and (5) replace fossil fuels by cleaner electricity. Under this policy, even Canadas carbon intensive provinces like Alberta and Saskatchewan fare very well in terms of GDP (Sadik, 2009, p. 2). The carbon price revenue helps in personal income tax cut substantially.

The analysis shows that meeting the target is impossible without an unrealistic rate of capital stock turnover. The purchase of international credits will enable Canada to sell advanced green technology to recipient nations. The great grandchildren of Canada will certainly be happy with the climate change assisted by the present generation.

According to World Bank chief economist Sir Nicholas Stern, the costs and risks of uncontrolled climate change would result in a 5 to 20 loss in the global GDP. About 1.86 million new jobs are expected to be created while meeting the target of this condition. This is the direct result of reduction in carbon pricing revenue and personal income tax. The GHG reductions in Canada certainly benefits global environment.
The two economic models namely CIMS and R-GEEM are relevant to GHG emission and helps in choosing technologies based on real world behavior. R-GEEM is for the Govt. of Canada and R-GEEM is for GDP and employment.

By meeting the target, the economy of Canada in 2020 will be 1.5 smaller than under business as usual. It is on the petroleum refining and natural gas extraction that suffers decline in output (Bramley, Sadik  Marshall, 2009, p.11). Certain mandatory measures eliminate much of Canadas landfill commissions. The GHG regulations accelerates fuel efficient vehicle technology. Therefore the amount of money spent on personal transportation will be less, for e.g. 6.7 billion less each year.

The 2009 United Nations Climate Conference in Copenhagen was aimed at strengthening the Kyoto Protocol through reduction of greenhouse gas emission to levels that would prevent serious impacts (Greenpeace  European Renewable Energy Council, 2009, p. 1). According to research, the green gas emissions could decline by 2015 if the countries follow their commitments towards reducing emissions. The focus of Copenhagen summit was in this regard. The major industrial nations committed to the 2 C limit for global average temperature increase. However, their commitments towards emission reduction fall below the required commitment (Greenpeace  European Renewable Energy Council, 2009, p.1).

Going forward, Canada has to be meaningful in adopting science based target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Though it is challenging, it is very much possible. Canada should come forward to pay 3 to 4 of the global costs, which would amount to US140 billion per year.

Chapter 3 Methodology
This paper examines Canadas possibility of meeting the 2 deg C target in 2020 along with a strong growing economy and high quality of life. According to David Suzuki Foundation, this is possible at the cost of steady job creation across the country. According to Matthew Bramley, the director of climate change for the Pembina Institute, Canada can implement a much stronger climate policies than the United States and can still prosper economically. The book A globally integrated climate policy for Canada by Bernstein helps to review the past and plan a new future. Pembina Institute and David Suzuki Foundation research works contribute more towards our discussion. Besides other sources on the net supports Canadas stance in the climate policy.  

Conclusion
In the past, Canada failed to achieve its agreed targets of green house gas emission reductions. Canadas objective of reducing global warming is very much possible without hampering the economic growth. The leading organizations like David Suzuki Foundation foresee a positive outlook in Canadas climate change policy. According to a study by David Suzuki Foundation, Canada can meet a 2 deg C target in 2020. Also it can have a robust economy and high quality of life.

Hurricanes which are also known as tropical cyclones are storm systems that are characterized by a center of very low pressure and several thunderstorms that usually produce heavy rain and strong winds. Hurricanes feed on the heat that is released once moist air rises, bringing about water vapor condensation which is contained in the rising warm moist air. Tropical cyclones are powered by the dissimilar heat mechanisms of the cyclonic windstorms like the noreasters, polar lows and European windstorms, which lead to the classification of hurricanes as storm systems of warm core. The genesis of the tropical cyclones is doldrums which are near the equator that is 10 north or south of the equator (Barnes  Lyons, 2007).

Background information of hurricanes
The term tropical is used to refer to the hurricanes geographic origin, which are exclusively within the tropical zones that is, between 30 north and south of the equator. The tropical term is also used to refer to the formation of the tropical cyclones within the air masses of the maritime tropical. Cyclone is used to refer to the manner in which these storms rotate. In the northern hemisphere, they rotate anticlockwise while in the southern hemisphere they rotate in the clockwise direction. Depending on the strength and location of a hurricane, it can be referred by different names like typhoon, cyclonic storm, tropical storm, tropical depression or simply a cyclone (Whitney Means  Rudloe, 2004).

While the hurricanes are capable of producing torrential rains and very powerful winds, they are also capable of damaging surges of storms and producing high waves and spawning of tornadoes. The tropical cyclones usually build up over warm water bodies that are warm. The hurricanes usually lose the strength they had gathered in the warm waters as move inland. This is basically the reason why coastal zones can receive a lot of damage from the tropical cyclones, while the inland regions far from the coast receive very little damage if any from the tropical cyclones. However, heavy rains can result to a lot of flooding in the inland regions while the storm surges are capable of producing a lot of flooding along the coastal regions that is, about forty kilometers from the coast line (Kislow, 2008).

Despite the fact that the effects of hurricanes on the human populations are in most cases devastating since they result in the loss of property and lives, hurricanes can also bring about good news especially when they relieve conditions of severe drought. Tropical cyclones also carry energy and heat away from the tropical regions, transporting them to the mid and extra latitudes thus assisting in their distribution. This makes the hurricanes a very significant component of the mechanism of global atmospheric circulation. As a result, hurricanes assist in maintaining the earths troposphere equilibrium and also maintaining relatively warm and stable temperatures around the world (Ahrens, 2007).

Several hurricanes build up when the conditions of the atmosphere around a disturbance that is weak within the atmosphere are favorable. Background environmental aspects of tropical cyclones are modulated by climatological patterns and cycles such as the southern oscillation of El Nino, Atlantic multidecadal oscillation, and the Madden Julian Oscillation. The systems that develop within the tropics then moved into the troposphere by the steering winds. However, this only takes place if the favorable conditions continue to prevail, and there is intensification of the disturbance in the tropics and an eye develops at the centre of the cyclone. However, if the conditions of the tropical system deteriorate or if the hurricane makes a landfall, then the tropical cyclone system becomes weak and eventually dissipates. With the current technology, it is artificially not possible to induce the dissipation process of these systems (Ahrens, 2008).

Area of study
The study area chosen for this research paper is the state of Florida, in the US located in the most southeastern part of the country. The state has a total area of 151,939 square kilometers, with land taking 140, 256 square kilometers and water taking up the rest of the area. The state of Florida extends 581 kilometers in the East West, and its maximum length in the North South is 719 kilometers. Florida includes a peninsula that is surrounded by the ocean on three of its sides.  Florida State was chosen because it is one of the regions in the world that has experienced the most devastating tropical cyclones in history. Some of the major hurricanes this state has experienced include Rita, Katrina, Wilma Stan Beta and Alpha hurricanes. Among all these hurricanes, hurricane Katrina was the most devastating for this particular state. The city of Florida has the characteristic of holding many records concerning hurricane frequency, strength and the subsequent damages and deaths arising from the hurricanes. The Keys Florida hurricane of 1935 was one of the most severe tropical cyclones to ever strike land. It passed through the middle Keys of Florida on 2nd September 1935 killing more than four hundred Floridians and caused lots damage to their property. That particular storm was the five entries for Florida in the top ten most severe hurricanes in all states of the US. At number three in this list of the most intense hurricanes in Florida was the Andrew hurricane, which is ranked second in terms of destruction caused. Andrew hurricane caused destruction of almost fifty billion US dollars. Among all the top five most costly hurricanes in the history of the US impacted on the Florida state in one way or another. The 1928 Okeechobee Lake hurricane, which is ranked at position seven in terms of intensity, caused a six to nine foot lake surge, thereby killing almost two thousand people in the state of Florida. It was thus ranked second in the list of the most deadly hurricanes in the United States (Young  Stinemetz, 2006).

Considering the events that have taken place over time, should the hurricanes of similar magnitude to the ones that struck in the past strike today, bearing in mind the current demographics of population, a lot of loss of lives and property destruction could be reported. In fact, it is approximated that the 1926 great hurricane of Miami, whose eye went over Miami struck today, it would cause property damage of over 160 billion this is much higher than the property loss that resulted from both Andrew and Katrina hurricanes combined. Furthermore, Florida State suffers from the highest frequency in terms of hurricane strikes and has the lowest period of return after being hit by a hurricane (Lodge, 2005).

This therefore means that the issue of whether or not the changes that are induced by human beings through the greenhouse effects on the atmosphere may have an impact on either the current or future patterns of hurricanes is perhaps more important for the state of Florida than any other state in the US. The states seventeen point three million residents who live along the coastlines account for more than fifty percent of all the vulnerable populations living along the coastlines from Texas all the way to North Carolina. It is therefore very evident that the residents of Florida have a cause to worry each year when the season of hurricanes approaches. The best scientific evidence that is available indicates that the natural deviations on the scales of time ranging from single years to decades, are the ones that dominate most of the small impacts which a climate that is warming might have on the intensity and frequency of hurricanes. The most significant determinant as far as futures vulnerability of Floridians is concerned is not changes in hurricanes themselves or climate, but population changes in the state of Florida as well as the structure of wealth of the coastal populations of the this state. These populations are ranked among the ones that are growing at a very high rate across the whole of the US, they have in fact increased by more than five times since the mid of twentieth century. It is against such a background that makes the study of hurricanes in Florida very essential. This is because, through the use of such studies, it is possible to develop mitigation strategies of these calamities and also be more prepared in addressing the problem when and where it arises (Bush, 2004).

Mitigation measures of hurricanes in Florida
For several decades, tropical cyclones that have struck Florida have proved to be among the worst natural disasters with devastating effects in the state of Florida. The residents of Florida as well as their property are highly vulnerable to the tropical cyclones between the months of June and November each year. It is during this time of the year when the ocean gets heated by the solar energy, the heat energy from the sun heating the surface temperatures of the oceans is usually sufficient to bring about very strong cyclones with winds exceeding seventy four miles per hour. Due to the Coriolis Effect, the strong storms are made to rotate through circular motion leading to the growth of hurricanes several miles across (Pilkey, 1984).

Tropical cyclones usually develop steadily from the system of a smaller storm. It results to a tropical depression which is a well organized system of thunderstorms and clouds with maximum sustained current of air of thirty eight miles per hour or less and well defined circulation. This system of weather is capable of strengthening and resulting into a tropical storm which has maximum wind speeds of between thirty nine and seventy three miles per hour. The tropical storm can in turn develop into a hurricane, which is an intense system of tropical weather with sustained maximum winds of seventy four miles per hour or higher and a circulation that is well defined. Each year, there are several hurricanes that usually develop and end up approaching Florida, fortunately most of these hurricanes dissipate or veer off. However, there are several hurricanes that in the past have struck this state causing a lot of destruction of property and loss of lives. The possibility of other hurricanes striking Florida in future is quite high and cannot be ignored at whatever cost (Fraser, 2009).

Hurricanes should be mitigated as much as possible since they produce very strong winds, storm surge and heavy rains. Storm surge occurs when storm systems of low pressure raises the level of the sea by several feet especially at the hurricanes leading edge. This makes the waves to go much more inland than they would do in normal circumstances. This results into erosion and flooding of coastal areas. Heavy rains resulting from the hurricanes brings about flooding on the upland regions, while on steep slopes, they produce debris and mud flows that end up devastating everything along their path. The strong winds resulting from the hurricanes causes severe damage to utility poles and lines, tear off roofs of homes that are poorly attached, and turn the debris that are small into projectiles capable of damaging homes as well as causing loss of lives and injuries (Schwartz, 2007).

With the current technology, there is basically nothing one can do to prevent a hurricane from developing and striking any place. Therefore, all mitigation measures aimed at reducing the impact of a hurricane should be carried well in advance before the hurricane strikes and not few hours before it strikes. One of the best ways of mitigating losses that result from hurricanes is by making use of the warnings provided by the hurricane watch in Florida. The authorities of Florida should provide a lot of support to the hurricane watch in the state in order to ensure that once it raises the red flag of the possibility of a hurricane, then Floridians should not only know about the news but should also be aware of what they are expected to do (Bush, 2001).

In most cases, hurricanes warning is usually declared once the conditions of a hurricane are anticipated at any given time in the next twenty four hours. For individuals to be in a position to mitigate their losses arising from such hurricanes, they should ensure that they listen to the updates coming from the civil defense in order to be aware of what they are expected to do in case the hurricane eventually strikes. People should review their disaster plans at the family level so that they can reduce the risk involved with hurricanes by being more prepared in addressing its consequences. Other mitigation measures for hurricanes include shutting all the glass doors and windows this minimizes breakages during the period of the hurricane. Tropical cyclones usually result into damage of a lot of property among the property that is usually damaged by hurricanes are important personal documents such as certificates. It is therefore very important for individuals to ensure that they mitigate the loss of such documents by storing them in places they are less likely to be damaged by the hurricanes (Roaf, Crichton  Nicol, 2009).

During the period of hurricane warning by hurricane watch, Floridians should ensure that they are well updated with news from the civil defense and also ensure that they remain indoors. While in their houses, the residents of Florida should ensure that they do not stay close to windows since staying close to them might increase their susceptibility of suffering from the hurricane. Due to the fact that it is usually not clear how long the hurricane will take before it weakens and veers off, it is always advisable for the Floridians to ensure that they store enough water and food in their houses to last them throughout the period of the hurricane (McGovern, 2007).

Floridians should be always armed with a survival kit for home emergency purposes to be used when a hurricane occurs. The survival kit should include the following items, a portable radio, candles, flashlight, medications, matches and ice chest. The survival kit should also include supply of non perishable food that can take the family for about one week, sleeping blankets or bags, clothing and cooking stoves. Such a survival kit can be of great help in reducing the amount of suffering during periods of hurricanes. If there is a threat emanating from a possible hurricane, the Floridian authorities together with the federal government of the US can set up evacuation shelters to be used for emergency purposes. The Floridian authorities together with the federal government have to decide whether or not there is need to evacuate Floridians hours before the tropical cyclone strikes. It is only through making such a decision well in advance that the effects of the hurricane can be mitigated otherwise making such a decision when the hurricane has already advanced in the cities will not make any significant difference (Elsner  Kara, 1999).

It is highly dangerous for anyone to drive through the strong winds of a hurricane to an evacuation center. This is because the roads may not be passable due to flooded underpasses or bridges. Such motorists may also be obstructed by the power poles that might have fallen on the roads thereby causing accidents.
Furthermore, a vehicle can offer very little if any protection at all from debris that are falling, which are carried by the strong hurricane winds at speeds exceeding one hundred miles per hour. Therefore, one of the measures people need to take in order to mitigate losses arising from hurricanes is avoiding driving to the evacuation centers until such a time when the hurricane will have subsidized and the roads will have been cleared (Kunreuther  Michel-Kerjan, 2009).

During the periods of hurricanes, there are certain houses that are highly vulnerable to the cyclones. Such houses include, the ones that are built on the ridges where the hurricane winds accelerate, the ones that are build in the valleys close to streams or rivers where flooding is likely to take place and the houses that are build along the shorelines, where they are likely to experience waves generated by hurricanes or storm surge causing floods far inland. Whenever the hurricane watch of Florida issues a warning on hurricanes, all people in such houses should be evacuated immediately and taken to safer places where they are less likely to be harmed by the hurricanes. Moreover, all the settlements that are built in the areas mentioned should be well checked to ensure that they are strong enough to withstand the hurricanes. For the individuals who are not evacuated and the hurricane winds blows off the roofs of their houses, the best thing for such individuals is to remain inside and not to attempt to get out seeking for better shelter. They should instead shelter themselves in the smallest room of such houses such as closet or bathroom, which can provide them with the greatest protection and strength from the debris that are flying allover (Grossi, Kunreuther  Patel, 2005).

For those residents of Florida who live in homes that were built recently, the roofs of their houses are most likely installed with hurricane ties. However, for those people whose houses were built earlier, they are not installed with such ties and such home owners should ensure that their houses are also fixed with such ties so that they can be much stronger and be able to withstand a hurricane and suffer very little if any damage. The roofs of the houses that were built in the past are designed to depend on few connections of nails between the rafters of the roofs and the sill plates on the upper side. Although this design is capable of withstanding the conventional winds, it is highly susceptible to the hurricane winds upward force that is much stronger. Hurricane ties installation can significantly increase the resistance of roofs to the uplift that is emanating from the strong hurricane winds (Godschalk, 1999).

These ties are cheap sheet metal strips that are formed in a way that enables them to accommodate a wide variety of wall to roof transitions. The ties are readily available from virtually all hardware stores and they are relatively simple to install. A dozen of these ties placed strategically at the wallrafter connection are capable of substantially increasing the probability of the roof withstanding the strong winds of the hurricanes. A set of these ties only costs about 500. Considering the amount one is likely to lose if the roof of the house is blown off by the strong hurricane winds, such an investment is very small and it would be advisable for all the home owners in Florida especially those whose houses are in regions that are prone to hurricanes to consider installing such ties (Hyndman  Hyndman, 2008).

Another mitigation measure is by securing the doors and windows of the house against hurricanes. When a hurricane is approaching, Floridians should nail plywood sheets over window glass plates. This is a very good idea since it is capable of preventing the debris that are flying from breaking the windows of houses and subsequently exposing the house to heavy rains and winds which eventually cause lots of damage to the house. In fact, most of the houses whose roofs are blown away by hurricane winds are because of the broken windows which permit the strong hurricane winds to enter the house and rush through and thus lifting the roof of the house from below. Therefore, if the residents of Florida ensure that all the windows are well closed and they are prevented from being broken by the flying debris, then fewer roofs can be blown away during periods of hurricanes. However, if one chooses to board the windows, he or she must ensure that the job is full-proof, not half way. The best plywood to be used is the one with thickness of 58 inches and has to be installed using masonry anchors and bolts. This will ensure that the windows are well protected and can withstand strong hurricanes without getting broken and thus protect the house from being damaged by the hurricanes (Barnett, 2007).

One of the major reasons why the winds of hurricanes are dangerous is due to the fact that they usually pick up many objects such as garbage cans, lawn chairs, and even sheet metal and lumber and then hurl such objects into the house causing a lot of damage to the house and also injuring the occupants of such a house. It is therefore advisable for Floridians to ensure that they collect everything that is likely to be picked up by the hurricane wind before the hurricane strikes. Floridians should not underestimate the strength of a hurricane and hence fail to collect much larger objects in their compounds since the hurricane winds are very strong and can turn large objects such as bicycles and BBQ grills into missiles capable of causing a lot of destruction to homes and other establishments. Such objects should be locked in houses and other enclosed rooms where the hurricane winds cannot get a chance of lifting them (Roaf, Crichton  Nicol, 2009).
Most of the damage that is caused by the hurricanes takes place in the coastal regions Floridians should therefore avoid visiting such places when a warning of a hurricane has been issued. Several people are usually eager to have a look at the hurricane effects on the oceans and they therefore go to the shorelines in order to see the big waves. While this may be possible and less dangerous for a hurricane that does not reach the shorelines, it is extremely dangerous for a hurricane that will come close to the shoreline or one that will directly hit the inland. If such happens, then most of the people who had gone to the shorelines to have a look at the hurricane might end up losing their lives. They should therefore be advised to stay away from such places as their curiosity can cost their lives (Bush, 2004).

A hurricane is essentially a system of low pressure the magnitude of the low pressure is so massive that it is capable of raising the level of the sea by several feet. This implies that the waves that are generated by these winds, which are traveling at more than seventy four miles per hour, will eventually wash ashore through homes of people, instead of breaking nicely. Furthermore, the flying and floating debris coupled with the effect of the strong winds would result into very unpleasant conditions of surfing. This therefore means that Floridians taking the risk of going to the shorelines to surf will only take a risk that cannot be compared to the insignificant pleasure they will derive from it (Roaf, Crichton  Nicol, 2009).

All the mitigation measures discussed above can be implanted by the Floridians at an individual level. This therefore means that it is up to the residents of Florida to ensure that they are well prepared for the hurricanes by building houses that can withstand strong hurricane winds. They should also ensure that they are well updated on the development of a hurricane that is approaching so as to take maximum possible care before and during the hurricane. People should avoid high risk areas where they are likely to be more vulnerable to the effects of a hurricane. The authorities of Florida together with the federal government should also play their roles effectively in ensuring that all the residents of Florida are well protected from the devastating effects of a hurricane. A major role they have to play before a hurricane strikes is making a decision in advance possibly several hours before the hurricane strikes of whether or not to evacuate people in places that are expected to be strongly hit by the hurricane. In order to make such a fast and a crucial decision, they have to make use of all available data from the hurricane watch (Fraser, 2009).

Hurricane preparedness in Florida
Hurricane preparedness covers all the planning and actions that need to be taken and implemented before a hurricane strikes. The main objective of hurricane preparedness is mitigating injury and damage arising from the tropical cyclone. This preparedness may engage the preparations that are made by people at an individual level and also the efforts of that are much centralized from organizations operating in Florida and the efforts of the Floridian authorities and the federal government. Recent hurricanes that have struck Florida causing a lot of damage to property as well as loss of lives have aroused the need for becoming more prepared in dealing with hurricanes in the future. Codes of building are starting to deal with the measures of mitigation in the Florida state. The excellent work that has brought about changes in Floridas building code has been greatly influence by various scientific lessons and observations that were learned by the international research center for hurricanes (Kislow, 2008).

In respect to individual preparedness, the most crucial decision an individual can make is determining whether or not to evacuate from an area that has been predicted by the hurricane watch of Florida that it will be hit by a hurricane in the next few hours. If it is not necessary or possible to evacuate, individuals can use other preparedness actions such as securing their houses against the heavy rains and strong winds, storing food supplies, and planning together with other people, possibly neighbors before the landfall of the storm. Such actions will enable the households of Florida to mobilize their resources at an individual level in order for them to cope and deal with the hurricane effectively. It is also very essential for Floridians to be psychologically prepared for any loss they are likely to incur during the period of the hurricane (Bush, 2004).
Once the warning has been issued by the hurricane watch of Florida, individuals should immediately prepare their emergency kits. They should ensure that such kits contain pre-prepared sealed meals, drinkable water, first-aid kits, waterproof hand crank powered or battery powered radios and flashlights, whistles or any other devices for sound signaling, medical and identification cards, any medical records that might be necessary, portable containers that are waterproof and waterproof bags and any supplies that individuals might consider necessary for surviving the hurricane (Whitney Means  Rudloe, 2004).

Hurricane preparedness should always include discussions in regard to evacuation routes and plans, as well as informing everyone within the region that is likely to be affected severely by the hurricane about such evacuation routes and plans in order to avoid instances of people being stranded and helpless once the hurricane finally reaches their area. Evacuating people to hurricane shelters should only be applied as a last resort option. This is due to the fact that the space of such shelters is small and in fact people are served as they come and thus those who arrive late might actually fail to secure any space at all. Furthermore, these shelters are only intended to save the life of people and not protecting their property from being damaged. Buildings that are designated as hurricane shelters in the state of Florida have to be constructed in a manner that enables them to reach the minimum requirements of hurricane code that was applicable during the time they were designed. Such shelters are supposed to protect the people who seek refuge in them during a hurricane. They are however not expected to provide such occupants with bedding, sanitation, water or food (Barnes  Lyons, 2007).

Home retrofitting is one of the best ways that Floridians can apply in order to protect their homes from being destroyed by the heavy rains and strong winds of the hurricanes. One of best ways of being prepared for a hurricane is by building ones house outside the high risk areas. However, irrespective of the amount of preparedness one employs in protecting the house, it is still possible for it to be destroyed or flooded by a strong hurricane. In order to lessen the effects of the heavy rains and strong hurricane winds, it is very essential for the home owners in Florida to have their houses checked by professionals who are well experienced in mitigation measures of hurricanes. There are several hurricane protection organizations that provide consultations for free as part of their strategy for marketing. Moreover, Florida State has taken some steps aimed at assisting the home owners in getting prepared for hurricanes through the program of My Safe Florida Home. Through this program, the home owners are offered with free assessment for their homes in readiness for hurricanes. Florida state matches the funds that are spent on the houses by their owners in making their houses comply with the applicable hurricane codes (Young  Stinemetz, 2006).

When the homeowners are making such improvements in readiness for the hurricanes, the main areas they should focus in are openings and the roof. Homes should be retrofitted in order to enable them withstand the tremendous conditions of hurricanes. Among the most common modifications that should be done include applying more adhesives to the single roofs, reinforcing the gabled roofs, installing the houses with hurricane clips and straps to make sure that the roofs are not blown away by the strong winds. Shutters that are hurricane resistant as well as glass that is impact resistant can assist in keeping windows locked in order to keep off the flying debris. The garage and the entry doors should also be reinforced through the practice that is commonly known as preparing homes. Doors to the garage can be protected through the use of fabric screens that are made using fabric that is woven strongly, so that they can keep off the projectiles and other flying debris. The main idea behind all these preparedness measures is increasing the probability of a home surviving the extreme conditions of a hurricane (Kislow, 2008).

The Florida State as well as the federal government of the US should always be ready for the hurricanes by setting aside funds within the budgetary allocations meant to assist during the periods of hurricanes. All the equipments that are necessary during a hurricane should be acquired well in advance before the hurricane season starts so that they can be well prepared for any eventuality that might take place during a hurricane. It is also essential for the state of Florida to ensure that such equipments are transported to the areas they are required should a hurricane strike (Young  Stinemetz, 2006).

It is very important for the state of Florida to train enough number of people and equip them with the skills for assisting people during the period of a hurricane. Such people should be well trained in all areas that are necessary to save human lives and property during a hurricane. In addition, such people should be trained in the best ways of using the equipments that are required during a hurricane. Apart from the training, the personnel who are responsible for assisting people during such times, the state of Florida should also consider enhancing the knowledge of people in regard to hurricanes so that they can also be in a position of being adequately prepared during a hurricane (Fraser, 2009).

Response operations for hurricane disasters
Once the warning of a hurricane threat has been issued by the hurricane watch, everyone within the state of Florida especially those in areas that are likely to be severely affected by the hurricane should remain alert and take the necessary precautions for mitigating their losses. So that they can respond as soon as possible whenever they are required to by the authorities, the residents should monitor all the radio stations and be updated about the approaching hurricane. Once the hurricane has already struck the area in which one is, he or she should remain indoors and shut all the windows and doors to their houses and garages. Since it is not possible to go outside and see what is happening in order to make a decision on the next course of action, the residents of Florida should listen to the televisions and radios and follow the instructions being issued by the officials of local emergency (Whitney Means  Rudloe, 2004).

When the local emergency officials ask people to evacuate from a certain area, they should do so as soon as possible since ignoring such warnings or delaying in acting on such orders can greatly jeopardize ones safety. Everyone should take with him the household survival kit. Floridians should respond promptly when asked by the officials to shut off gas, electricity and water since failure to do so might prove fatal. During the evacuation process, the residents of Florida should be obedient and follow the routes that are specified by the emergency officials. They should as much as possible avoid using shortcuts since they could lead them to areas that are either dangerous or blocked (Barnes  Lyons, 2007).

The federal government of the US and the State of Florida should act fast in responding to the hurricanes. Once the warning has been issued, they should release enough funds for arresting the situation so as to reduce loss of peoples lives and damage of property as much as possible. In addition, these authorities should mobilize and employ all the resources that are necessary in minimizing the amount of damage that is likely to occur as a result of the hurricane. The state of Florida should ensure that all the residents of the state are well informed about the development of a hurricane from the moment a warning of a possible hurricane is issued to the time when it subsidizes. The relief team that is employed in the state of Florida should constantly tour the areas that are hit by the hurricane possibly by helicopters in order to ensure that anyone who was caught up by the hurricane while in the outdoors is rescued. The authorities should facilitate the evacuation process and ensure that people are transported safely to less risky areas (Fraser, 2009).

Leadership, planning and emergency communications
The state of Florida as well as the federal government should offer the right leadership in dealing with the hurricanes in order to ensure that the loss incurred as a result of a hurricane both in terms of loss of human lives and property damage is minimized as much as possible. Since hurricanes are natural disasters that take place every now and then in the state of Florida, the authorities should implement sound policies for addressing the challenges brought about by hurricanes that strike the state every now and then. One of the major ways through which the authorities can be well prepared in dealing with hurricanes is by creating a reserve fund for such disasters. The government can also establish a department that exclusively deals with hurricanes and other disasters the Floridians face from time to time (Bush, 2004).

The authorities can also offer the right leadership required in dealing with hurricanes by developing various programs aimed at increasing the Floridians knowledge concerning hurricanes. Such programs can be of great assistance in enabling the residents of Florida to take care of themselves whenever a hurricane strikes. In fact, by enhancing the knowledge of the Floridians concerning hurricanes can result to more effective mitigation and preparedness measures as compared to shouldering the entire burden on the state of Florida and the federal government of the US. The state of Florida should ensure that in each and every area, there are people who are trained in dealing effectively with the challenges brought about by hurricanes. Such people do not necessarily have to be employed directly by the disaster department, but they have to be well equipped with all the necessary skills and techniques as well as equipments so that they can offer assistance during the rescue operations when the hurricane is going on and immediately after it subsidizes (Young  Stinemetz, 2006).

During the periods of hurricanes, emergency communications are very essential because they are used in providing people with the necessary information of what they are required to do before, during and after the hurricane. All possible and available means of communication should be used to make sure that everyone gets the right information concerning the hurricanes at the right time. Such communications are very important as they enable people to make fast and accurate decisions in respect to the right course of action when the hurricane warning threat is issued. The people conveying such information should ensure that they give very precise sets of information and in a clear manner so as to prevent instances of ambiguity and hence confusion during such a delicate time (Kislow, 2008).

Psychosocial Aspects of hurricanes
The effects of a hurricane disaster are in virtually all cases quite obvious, thousands of people usually lose their lives as a result of the disaster. Those people who manage to survive the disaster suffer disability and pain. Their workplaces, homes, equipment and livestock are severely destroyed or damaged by hurricanes. Emotional effects that are short-term emanating from a hurricane disaster such as acute anxiety, fear, emotional numbness feeling and deep sorrow and grief are quite common among the survivors of hurricane and several other disasters. For several hurricane disaster victims, such emotional effects tend to fade over time however, there are others who take much longer time before recovering from the effects of a disaster (Barnes  Lyons, 2007).

Some emotional effects resulting from a hurricane disaster are due to the direct response of the trauma of the hurricane. Other effects result from the much longer term emotional responses to the societal, economic and interpersonal effects of the hurricane disaster. In either case, lack of interventions that are well designed can make more than fifty or a higher percentage of such victims to develop lasting pervasive anxiety, depression, stress disorders that are post traumatic and several other types of emotional disturbances. In fact, more than even the hurricane disasters physical effects, the emotional effects brought about by such disasters are more long lasting and can cause a lot of suffering, loss of income and disability to the victims. It is therefore very important for the state of Florida and the federal government of the US to assist such victims as much as possible (Whitney Means  Rudloe, 2004).

Conclusion
Florida is one of the states in the US that suffers most frequently from hurricane disasters which always results into very heavy losses running into billions of US dollars and thousands of lives lost. There is therefore dire need for the state of Florida and the federal government to take the necessary precautions against hurricane disasters. Despite the fact there is nothing one can do with the current level of technology to prevent a hurricane from striking a certain area, there are several measures Floridians together with their authorities can take in order to mitigate losses emanating from the hurricanes. There are also several other measures that should be taken in order to ensure that everyone in Florida is well prepared in advance in case a hurricane strikes. People and the government should respond promptly and arrest the situation whenever a hurricane strikes in order to minimize the level of damage and loss of both property and lives. There is also need for the right form of leadership to be offered in mitigation and preparedness of hurricanes as well as responding whenever a hurricane strikes.