Environmental Issues

Recently, the natural disasters that brought great destruction in most countries were brought by climate change and extreme weather conditions that left many people wondering if these were indeed manifestations of the predictions about global warming. But for some people, scientific confirmation is no longer needed to conclude that the crazy changes in temperature and weather conditions in their locality is caused by mans deliberate abuse of nature. 

    Food sources like plantations and farmlands were likewise destructed as the natural calamities hit with devastation.  At this point in time, most peoples great concern is the environment and food supply.  It may not be obviously manifested but the relationship of these two simply echoes the worlds concern for sustainable environment so that the children today may still live in a decently habitable future. 
Tensions in Gore and Sachs Perspectives

    Gore believes that the powerful force of market capitalism can be used as an ally in arresting the global warming issue.  It has been a practiced in traditional business to consider environmental factor as external and usually ignored in evaluating the company performance.  But business leaders today are said to be re-evaluating their strategy and view on profitability by considering longer-term investments.  Parts of these considerations are the pros and cons of the environmental impact. Therefore for Gore, it is possible to support global sustainability while doing well financially.

    To illustrate the above mentioned strategy, the risk-management companies like the insurance sector are evaluating the impact of climate change.  For the past three decades, the insurance industry reported that the companies spent 15-fold increase in the amount of money paid to the clients who were victims of extreme weather condition such as hurricanes, floods, wildfire, tornadoes and other forms of natural disaster.  For example, Gore states that hurricane Katrina incurred  60 billion in insured losses.

    Meanwhile, an innovative program of buying and selling emissions to reduce carbon dioxide has been adopted by the European Union.  Other countries have also geared in this direction, such as Montreal Commodity Exchange in Canada, and Mumbai Commodity Exchange in India and in US, the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX). According to Gore, the World Resources Institute, municipalities like City of Oakland, California and the Universities like University of Oklahoma have recently joined CCX. Therefore, this illustrates that business ventures to improve the economy do not necessarily antagonize the environment.
    Gore recognizes well enough the power of the developed countries when it comes to creating treaties and policies that will cause positive impact in addressing global warming. On the other hand, Sachs focused on the realities of the environmental issues on the third-world and developing countries.  Beyond the ramifications of natural disasters to several industries in rich countries, the agricultural production and productivity in less developed countries are worsened.  Sachs cited that migration from land will be a growing phenomenon while shanty towns will be exposed to erosion and destruction.  Also, only those with physical and economic capacity can fight off illnesses. Sachs further asserts that the effects of global warming will definitely be uniform all over the world but this will disproportionately affect the socially weak and powerless.

    The environmental problems brought by floods and other calamities cause toxic and damaging effects to peoples health. According to Sachs, well-to-do people are not exception to this but the low-income group suffers most with unavoidable diseases like diarrhea, infections, injuries, and premature death since they cannot immediately afford to address their needs.

    Sachs mentions of subsistence rights include.  These are what the individuals need to develop as living beings, like clean air, drinkable water, elementary health provision, adequate nourishment and clothing, and shelter.  And this entails for the state to also make provisions in order for these rights to be realized. Therefore, subsistence rights perform in three levels of obligation for state and other powerful actors according to Sachs, first is to refrain from withdrawing such rights to people, second is to guarantee their own livelihood and third is to ensure restoration in the event of its loss.

    Since the aspect of environment plays a key role in subsistence rights of the people, the policy that protects the livelihood overlaps with environmental conservation. Hence these two are closely related to ensure that decent living is granted to people most especially to the poor inhabitants.

    While Gore talks of using the market capitalism and global participation to address the environmental problems, Sachs reiterated the subsistence rights of the people that should guide relevant environmental policies in order to avoid power play and economic competition that may stifle what is due for the disadvantaged sector in the population.

Relevance of environmental issues to food crisis
    As concrete sample of Sachs point, food crisis violates the basic subsistence rights of the people.  Looking at the causes of food crisis will bring back old issues of unprecedented play of power and economic competition.

    According to Bellos and Bavieras Food Wars, the international press and academics declared that the era of cheap food has ended, and this was caused by the failure of the poorer countries to develop agricultural sectors and strains on the international food supply created by dietary changes in China and Indias expanding middle classes who were eating more meat.  Speculation in commodity futures, the conversion of farmland into urban real estate, climate change, and the diversion of corn and sugarcane from food production to the production of agrofuels to replace oil are other reasons.

    The interrelated causes of food crisis are the end result of the environmental problems these past decades.  It started from the build-up of carbon dioxide emitted from highly industrialized cities that failed to practice proper environmental ethics.  This created more natural calamities that affected most of the agricultural production in many countries. The food supply was affected.  The food security issues were addressed differently by the key players in the world economy.

    Huge land lease deals were said to be taking place in land-rich countries like Cambodia, Madagascar and Philippines. Food Wars says that some of these lands will be for food production and agrofuels.  Hence, each country will have a decreasing agricultural productivity that will result to more food imports, a scenario that only speaks of higher price for basic food commodity and consequently hunger for those who cannot afford.  Therefore, such economic undertaking violates the obligation of the state to ensure the realization of their subsistence rights.

    The so-called political elites in land-rich countries seem too happy undertake such deals at the expense of their own countrys food security. Multimillion dollar leases are strong incentives like the one offered by the Chinese to the Philippine corporations. Again, as stated in Food Wars, this typically exhibits the power play of man against man using the environment.

    The international food supply was mainly induced by the structural adjustment. Food Wars explains that this was imposed by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund on over ninety developing and transitional economies for a twenty-year period beginning in the early 1980s.

    The above mentioned scenario was supported by McMichael.  He furthered that the structure and politics of the market are ultimately responsible for food crisis. Hence, it was not surprising that the crisis served as an opportunity for corporate and multilateral financial institutions to further their control and management of the global food system.  Governments with other resources resorted to food import liberalization, price controls andor export controls on domestically produced food, and a global land grab has ensued when governments secure food supplies in other countries. World Food Crisis asserts that the bottom line of it all is that rising food prices indicates a more fundamental structural process at work, manifest in both famine and food riots.

    In 2003-2005, 848 million people suffered from chronic hunger, an increase of six million from the 199092 figures of nearly 842 million. According to Food Wars, this was the worrisome apparent trend even before the recent surge in food prices. The future is not promising at all if this trend goes on in the advent of more increase in food prices.

    But beyond the factors controlled by man, the UN Environment Program reported that there is a decline in water, land, air, plants, animals and fish stocks.  Natural calamities like flood hit fifty-seven countries, including twenty-nine in Africa, nineteen in Asia, and nine in Latin America. According to World Food Crisis, harvests have been affected by drought and heat waves in south Asia, Europe, China, Sudan, Mozambique and Uruguay.

    Meanwhile, in the midst of calamities and food crisis, five corporations control 90 percent of the international grain trade three countries produce 70 percent of exported corn, and the 30 largest food retailers control one-third of world grocery sales.  As cited in World Food Crisis, this concentration of corporate power was a vision conveyed by the chairman of Cargill There is a mistaken belief that the greatest agricultural need in the developing world is to develop the capacity to grow food for local consumption. This is misguided. Countries should produce what they produce best  and trade.  Indeed, but the few powerful people in the country goes for the immediate reward and incentive of the land-lease deals that will only benefit them and leave the rest of the citizen in unjust hunger and famine.

    Gore presented the dangers of global warming and several possibilities how it can be arrested through market capitalism and global initiatives.  It may be noble and all-encompassing but there is a deeper problem in executing environmental policies.  People who are in the rightful position to make a big change apparently lack moral responsibility to ensure the subsistence rights of their own people through sound and just environmental policies. These policies should not only address the peoples need but the genuine and effective means to save what is left of our environment so that there will be enough left for the next generations to come.


    An average American in United States emits around 15,000 pounds of carbon dioxide every year.  Gore explains that the country constitutes 5 of the worlds population and produces around 25 of the worlds total gas emissions. If we truly want to save our planet, everyone should start with oneself.  We should act out our hopes for the world and practice a way of living that does not violate a fellow human being.

The aquatic ecosystem is known to perform various important environmental functions. These functions include recycling of nutrients and minerals, purification of water, maintenance of water flows, ground water conservation. The ecosystem acts as a habitat for wild life as well. The rapid increase of population in most parts of the US and the expansion of industrial and commercial sectors have led to various forms of pollution that affects the water surface, which results from water exposure to fertilizers, pesticides and fossil fuels (National Research 1992). In addition to this, the disposal of sewage into the sea waters has increased. The growing number of population and harmful human activities also led to increased water consumption, thus reducing the flows which could dilute the sewage.

    Human activities in agriculture, forestry and urban construction have led to increased sediment delivery, resulted in greater turbidity and sedimentation in downstream channel lakes and reservoirs. This has reduced the water capacity, negatively affecting the habitats for fish and wild life. Drainage of wetlands has also made the aquatic organisms become extinct and to some extent made drinking water, swimming and fishing impossible.

    Following the challenges that the water system is facing, there has been an urgent need to restore the aquatic ecosystem since it affects very many activities. Individuals in public and private sectors have worked to support the aquatic restoration, which presupposes making the ecosystem almost the same as it was before the damage done to it. The US committee on restoration of the aquatic life sees the process possible even though it may seem impractical. For instance, a river that has been affected and lost some water inhabitants like fish, leeches, turtles etc. could be restored through transporting water to the river and introducing fish to inhabit it (Laws 2000). The committee sees future preventive measures as a way of restoring the aquatic life. These measures should bring more benefit than just one hydrologic cycle, and if they had been taken earlier the waters would not have been polluted so much.

    The restoration of the aquatic ecosystem may be accomplished in several stages, since a particular ecosystem functions separately and may be restored even when other ecosystems deviate from normal conditions. An example of this is potable water, which can lead to partial ecological restoration and provides significant ecological advantages even though full restoration might not been attained. Bearing in mind the effects of the disturbed aquatic life, the committee advocates a large-scale aquatic ecosystem restoration program to be implemented to regain and protect the physical, chemical and biological integrity of the surface water. The program should work to solve acute pollution problems stop the decline in wildlife populations
restore types of wildlife habitats, the priority being the endangered species.

The committee recommends that a national aquatic ecosystem restoration strategy be developed for the USA. The program would set specific national restoration goals for wetlands, rivers, streams and lakes and provide a national assessment process to monitor if the process is being achieved. The program should have the governmental and non-governmental bodies working together to achieve the set goals. The strategy as proposed by the committee should include four elements natural restoration goals and assessment strategies for each eco-region principles for priority setting and decision making changes in the policies and the program for the Federal and State agencies to emphasize restoration innovation in financing and use of land and water markets (Gosselink  Mitsch 2000).

Achieving the set goals, however, requires the cooperation of the government, non-governmental bodies and cities authorities and calls for planning, leadership, federal funding accompanied by proper investment. The program should be put in place under the leadership of a single responsible organization. With these aspects considered, restoration would be made simple and effective.

    There are financial constraints, that is why there is a need for the Congress to establish a Natural Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration Trust Fund and allow States and Local government to supervise the federal water development construction, maintenance and major repair funds to finance the aquatic ecosystem restoration programs. Apart from this, the Congress should request USDA to investigate where and how the Agricultural wetland Reserve Program would help to save the USDA farm expenditure (Harvey  Green 2004). This follows the initiative of resettling farmers, who worked in wetlands in view of restoring the wetland. When restoring the aquatic life, programs should take into consideration the following
the use of the landscape perspective the use of adjusting planning and management the evaluating and ranking restoration alternatives based on an assessment of opportunity cost rather than on traditional benefit cost analysis.

To sum up, the aquatic restoration should involve, apart from the committees, citizen awareness and initiative. Failure to which could lead to increased environmental costs later, extinction of species or ecosystem types and in permanent ecological damage.

Present environmental impact assessment analyzes the appropriateness of five sites A, B, C, D, E for the construction of a wind farm. Several crucial impact factors are to be assessed  elevation, infrastructure, ecological conditions, community impact, legal status of land (protected, not protected) etc. Based on the thorough assessment of all major factors Site C was chosen as the most perspective location for the construction of Rombalds Moor Wind Farm. Possible negative impacts, which may be caused by a wind farm construction and operation are far outweighed by its positive implications for renewable energy production and community development.

Introduction Environmental Impact Assessment
The proposed assessment is for the LKF Wind Farm Company that has decided to build a wind farm in a specified location of Rombalds Moor. The assessment is environmental, seeking to find positive and negative qualities of a wind farm and choose between 5 sites proposed. Wind farms are crucial for transition to the use of renewable energy (Pasqualetti, p. 427). The energy resources now used are detrimental to the ecological stability of our planet, because emissions produce greenhouse effects and destroy the ozone layer. (Smithson et al 2002).

The resulting consequences are detrimental to environment the latter includes melting of icecaps, sea level rise, soil erosion, weather changes etc. The Sustainable Development Commission (2005) stated that wind turbines have far less negative effects on environment as they are not characterized by decommissioning issues and can be quickly removed or replaced. However, the construction of wind farms may cause certain environmental problems, which though may be pragmatically resolved. In this view, a environment assessment report should be designed to address these issues. It will be made up of 5 distinct parts, including the project description, planning analysis, preliminary assessment of sites, argumentation of the choice and final assessment.
1. Project Description
To propose any type of building on a site the impacts of the building should be carefully assessed and understood. The following factors should be specifically considered
Physical characteristics of        Ancillary development sites        Proposed mitigation
Phases of the development project    measures
Scale of the development project        Site Layout
This wide range of factors should be carefully assessed to produce valuable recommendations. The characteristics of the discussed project are quite similar to those of Oveden Moor Wind Farm and Lewis Wind Farm Farm, including the size of the projects and their setting. On the Ovenden wind farm there are 23 turbines, taking up 200 hectares  the same layout is proposed for the Rombalds Moor wind farm.
2. Planning analysis
Key planning policies are crucial to the realization of the wind farm project, because it should be compatible with local planning authorities (LPA). LPA should be passed by any developer to enact and realize the project.  Planning policies to be considered by LPA are presented below, as well the diagram describing the entire planning process for the Lewis Wind Farm.
Identification of Planning Policies and issues that need to be considered by the Local Planning Authority while considering the EIAS
(Use the BMDC - Unitary Development Plan)
Chapter 14 - Natural Environment and the country side
Chapter 15  Natural Resources
Chapter 16  Pollution Hazards and Waste
Use the Planning Policy Guidance (PPG)
PPG16 Archaeology and Planning
PPG24 Planning  Noise
PPG2 Green Belts
PPG9 Nature Conservation
(Use the Regional Planning Guidance  RPG 12)
Chapter 2 Regional Context
Chapter 3 Vision, Objectives and Strategy .
Chapter 4 Regional Spatial Strategy
Chapter 9 Built and Natural Environment
Chapter 10 Resource Management



.Continuous consultationr All stages of the process, including consultations with local planning authorities are carefully reflected in this scheme.  There are differences, however, between Rombalds Moor Wind Farm and Lewis Wind Farm. Rombalds Moor Wind Farm project may be affected by other factors, including handling of the habitat, landscape and ecology. Some of the local policies should be directly followed, which means that it may create certain planning problems.
3. Preliminary assessment of sites

Five optional sites to build the farm on are A,B,C,D and E. All sites would experience crucial environmental changes, since 200 hectares should be taken away to build a wind farm. The site should be operable for a period of 20 years, however, it will not need frequent repairs. All of the sites have a moorland land landscape with low growing vegetation and associated with many migratory birds.  (Meilleur, 2003).  The National Soil Resource Institute (2008) found out that the soil on the discussed sites is seasonally waterlogged. The excess water may result in flooding, as far as areas with steep slopes are concerned and the water will run down into the town. There is a danger that the wind farm would degrade the landscape view for surrounding residents  in the closest town  Riddlesden population is 300 people. Together with these general problems each of the sites has its specific characteristics discussed in the chart below.

The graph above shows the correlation between different factors affecting the choice of site. Such correlation corresponds with the number-based system of assessment and its interpretation, which gives preferences to certain factors (Wizelius, 42). Environment assessment, hence, should be based on relative concept of significance. For instance, a large increase in pollution may be still appropriate in the conditions of robust environment, whereas even small increase may be harmful in sensitive environment.
 The types of environmental impacts of a wind farm construction should also be carefully differentiated as the table below shows the environmental assessment defines several types of impacts.

- direct and indirect impacts (e.g. simple cause and effect diagrams)
- the geographical extent (e.g. local, regional, national)
- whether the impacts are beneficial or adverse
- the duration of impacts over life of project (e.g various stages)
- the rate of change of impacts
- the reversibility of impacts or permanency
- the cumulative (or additive) impacts
- the unit of measurement (quantitative or qualitative)
- should also include estimates of the probability that an impact will occur

Magnitude of impact (i.e. Sizeobjectiveenvironment related) does not always equate with significance (i.e. the importance for decision makingsubjectivehuman related).

Elevation
Geographical sites with higher elevation secure a good wind speed, which allows them to produce large amounts of energy through the extended wind speed. (Danish Wind Industry Association, 2003). However, due to higher elevation the community members will see the wind farm easier. Site D has been given a 5, which corresponds to the lowest range of elevation and wind speed (See graph). In contrast, Site A has the highest elevation and wind speed, which gives it the best advantage according to the factor, discussed.

Protected Land
All of the sites may cause nature conservation problem, however, the proposal should be enacted in the case of the lowest damages and overriding public interest.  (PPS 2, 1997). The map above shows the scope of protected land and areas with purple stripes and orange, which are SSSI lands. Site D would be the best choice, because there is no protected land on it at all. At the same time, site E would be the worst choice in the analyzed situation (See the graph). All other sites have given a medium numbers, which places them in between.

Scheduled Monuments
Archaeological sites and monuments are protected by law and should be left undisturbed. The consent will be needed from Secretary of State to allow any work, affecting them. The best way to preserve such sites is to guarantee the lowest levels of disturbance (HELM, 2008).The map above shows scheduled monuments  the small orange squares signify scheduled monuments. Site A has the largest number of scheduled monuments, whilst Site C and D have the lowest number, which allows them to be more appropriate for the proposal (See the graph).

Buildings
Site B and Site D have small farmhouses, which would be affected by the construction. Site B was assigned 1, because it has only one building, while Site D has a few buildings and was given the largest number of 3 (See the Graph).

Roads
The availability of roads near the site is a positive factor, because it allows saving funds and ecology on the construction of new roads (Spera, p.241). Site D is the site closest to the road,  that is why it was given the lowest number. Site E, being the farthest away from roads was given the highest number.
 
Slopes
The sites with steep slopes are not beneficial, because it would result in flooding problems, as the surface runoff would flow into the town. Accompanied with low vegetation, steep land increases the movement of rainwater, which may cause flooding. (Smithson et al.2002). The steepest site is Site E, while the most even site is Site B, which is the most perspective in the analyzed factor (See the Graph above). Notwithstanding its  positive conditions, preventing flooding, Site C also has quite developed drainage system, which may be seen on the figure below (eastern part of the map).

Visibility
The closest site to the town is Site D, which means that it is the worst option in this particular factor, while Site B is the farthest away and was given the lowest number (See the graph below). Visibility should be regarded as important factor to wind farm proposal, however, it often happens that it may become subjective (Pasqualetti, Gipe, Righter 2004).

Accessibility to Electricity
Site D, being the closest to the community provides the best access to electricity through the connection to electrical grids (Heier, 2006). Site A is fairly far from community and roads, which makes it connecting to electrical grid harder (See the Graph).
4. Argumentation of the choice
Based on the number system, it is easily seen that Site C is likely the best choice among the sites. However, each site has some detrimental factors. Site C contains protected lands and the sites with the land protected by the government would not be the best choice due to rigorous process of notification and legal procedures. Site C contains SSSI land, but does not have as much protected land as on other sites. The only exception is Site D, which does not have any protected land however, it is characterized by many other detrimental features. Site C is far away enough from the residents, while it is located near the top of the hill, which makes its location advantageous. The slopes are not steep, while the proximity of road allows better access to communications. Moreover, Site C has a moorland landscape, which means that it will be quite easy to construct on. However, it should be noted that there exists possibility of hurting migratory birds. This problem is not unique to Site C, which does not make his position more negative. 7
5. Final  Report
The final scoping report is made of a matrix from preliminary scoping report. However the construction would immediately cause certain environmental change and damage wild life, its wider implications would be positive for the environment. The landscape changes may also negatively affect the aesthetics of a countryside, which should be taken into consideration. (SDC, 2005).
A) Matrix
The table below shows the characteristics of site C, which make it a better choice.

Protected LandElevationScheduled MonumentsBuildingsVisibilityRoadsSlopeFootpathsElectricity AccessSite CYes

2Level 2No 0YesThe Site C contains a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) land and hence, any proposal should not entail damaging impacts. But, there are no scheduled monuments on the site, which makes it a positive choice. Elevation, steepness of land and moorland landscape are components which contribute to the effective construction and operation process. Proximity of roads and community makes it easy to connect and provide infrastructure including logistics, electricity etc. Ground connection to electrical grid would cause less damage to habitat and hence, should be taken as the primary option.  (Heier, 2006). Such policies would allow conserving existing flora and fauna on the Site C.

Non-Technical Summary
Site C has designated SSSI numbers 13, 14 and 15.The Natural England SSSI websites defines 13 and 14 as unfavourable recovering,1 meaning that the land recovers, but not fully to reach favourable conditions. A SSSI number 15 signifies unfavourable no change, meaning that the land is not being conserved. The latter happens, because air pollution and overgrazing can not be conserved par excellence.  (Natural England, 2002).  Most of land on Site C fall under 15 number, which means that the land is not likely to be conserved. That implies that constructing a wind farm would not be detrimental to the land, while it would allow saving other lands from negative impact.

Effects on Habitat, Ecology, and Landscape
Habitat
The problems, which a construction of a wind farm may cause for local wildlife and habitat should be carefully weighted against positive effects for combating climate change (Hau, p.24). The most famous moorland bird is the red grouse, which feeds on the heather glades. (Atherdon, 1992). Site C contains only some heather, while the most of vegetation is presented by grass moor.  (National Soil Resource Institute, 2008). Site C, falling under SSSI number 15 is not favourable for ecology protection and wildlife. This means that the scope of habitat loss is not noticeable at all. Moreover, it should be noted that constructing a wind farm is itself positive in terms of fighting global warming which results in massive habitat loss.

Ecology
The characteristics of the soil were found on National Soil Resource Institute (2008). The soil on Site C was found to be slowly permeable, clayey, seasonally waterlogged loamy and somewhat peaty (Avery, 1980). Peat is valuable and non-renewable resource and should be saved for later utilization. Therefore, a design of turbines should be appropriate to prevent a peat slide. Site C has level ground, which means that peat slides would be difficult. The National Soil Resource Institute (2008) study shows that peaty areas are permanently wet. The latter implies that the site would be wet. The soil on Site C has low natural fertility. The peat soil and moorland habitat including grass moor and heather may be affected, however, the operation of the Lewis Wind Farm (2004) with a similar characteristic as Rombalds Moor showed no long-term negative effects on moorland and bog communities.

Landscape

The visibility of turbines to community and the change of the landscape may be negative factors, affecting final decision. A random sample of 50 wind projects, which were refused planning permissions shows that 85 of projects were refused because of visual and landscape impacts.  (SDC, 2005). This means that to receive permission, a wind farm company should find support of local community, which should be persuaded in the importance of and benefits from access to renewable energy.

Pairc Wind Farm experience of providing positive incentives for community development may be taken into consideration. Pairc Wind Farm proposed that local firms had equal rights for bidding as main contractors or sub-contractors. Moreover, it promised to use local materials and businesses to foster the communal development. Local tenders were particularly encouraged in civil engineering activities. Pairc Wind Farm also provided job for qualified workers from local communities (Pairc ,p. 7).

The problem of visibility is the most subjective and it seems impossible to resolve it objectively.  (SDC, 2005). The noise of fee turbine is quite appropriate  a wind farm at 350 m away produces 35-45 DB (A) noise level, which is quieter than any automobile. (Style, P, Stimpson I, Toon S, England R, and Wright M, 135).  The argument that property prices may decrease because of the proximity of wind farms is also not empirically validated.  (BWEA, 2007).

The community should be properly consulted at each stage of the construction process to avoid misunderstanding. It should be explained to community members that building a wind farm produces economic benefits, including new contracts, employment and compensations.
As the Lewis Wind Farms experience suggests, cooperation with local communities may take different forms including presentations to local elected councils, area partnership, consultations with local groups and representatives, organizing round-tables etc (Lewis Windpower, 5).

Currently and in the future, wind farm construction is necessary, because it may prevent negative consequences of the extensive use of non-renewable energy, which cause global warming. The use of non-renewable energy sources destroys our planet and should be prevented (Hand, 1192). The non-renewable energy cause greenhouse effect, melting of icecaps, sea level rise, habitat loss, soil erosion, erratic weather changes etc (Gipe, p. 463). The importance of using other energy sources, such as solar, geothermal, hydro, wind is increasing. Wind energy production is the optimal option for the Site C due to the characteristics of its landscape and environmental problems. The construction of a wind farm on this site would help the United Kingdom to reach its goal of cutting carbon emission by 80 by 2050  (Summers, Carrington, 2008).


Current environment assessment project found out that Site C is the most appropriate for the construction of a wind farm negative ecological and social effects for community and land are minimal, whereas benefits are tangible and real. The study showed that a wind farm construction would decrease regions dependence on the non-renewable energy and would help develop economic and social potential of local communities.

Grassland environments can be found worldwide. There are many variations of such form of environment. However, every grassland shares the common characteristics of having only about 30 to 50 inches of rain that occurs annually, and uneven seasonal rainfalls. Such amount of rainfall influences the type of vegetation in Savannahalthough not enough to support an entire forest, it is enough to prevent such biome from becoming a desert. As the name implies, grasslands are open spaces where variety of grasses grow, and limited number of trees are scattered throughout the area. Tropical forms of grasslands have wet-dry cycle season (Staten Island Zoological Society 8). In the continent of Africa, the grassland environment is referred to as Savannah. It is in Africa where the largest area of Savannah can be found.

African Savannah
    The African Savannah is a tropical grassland that takes up almost half of the entire continent, stretching to about 5 million square miles. African Savannah is situated between 15 north, 30 south latitude, and 15 east and 40 west longitude of Africa, and covers Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote Divore, Liberia, Ghana, Benin, Togo, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Burundi, Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique,  Zambia, Botswana and South Africa. This biome is characterized by a grassy ground layer with a distinct layer of woody plants, and serves as a habitat for diverse forms of animals (Maya).

Climate
    The climate of this biome is hot all throughout the year, with temperature never dropping to 20c. Rainfall varies from one area to another. Some parts of the Savannah get a lot of rain, while some get very little. During the rainy season (wet season) which usually occurs during the beginning of May and ends, at the most, in November, African Savannah gets 15 to 25 inches of rain per month. This is then followed by a long dry season, occurring from October to March in southern Savannah and April to September in northern Savannah. Dry seasons take place during low sun period, while the wet season occurs during high sun period (Maya).

Vegetation
    Most of the animals living in the African Savannah are plant-eating mammals. As such, grass is the primary vegetation in these regions of Africa. During wet seasons, grasses grow very fast, reaching to about three meters high, and they go into a cycle of flowering and pollination. Once the dry season comes, this vegetation dies as its roots reach deep into the soil for wait, and when the wet season returns, the grass grows back and undergoes the same cycle. Alongside the grass are various kinds of trees which also serve as food sources for large animals. However, the low rainfall, periodic fires, and grazing keep the number of trees very low (The Savanna in Kenya 1-2).

Flora and Fauna
    Due to the semi-arid climate in the African Savvanah, limited varieties of trees and other plants are able to withstand such climate. Acacia Trees are perhaps the most common trees found in African Savannah. Two types of acacia tree grow in the African Savannah the Senegal gum tree, which contain many branches that usually spreads out in a flat rounded top, and the Umbrella thorn acacia, which is considered as one of the most recognizable trees within the African Savannah due to its  flat topped crown that gave it its name. Acacia trees provide shade for many animals in the Savannah. The Baobab tree, which is leafless for nine months making it look upside down, is also common in the African Savannah. Other notable plants that grow in this biome include the Bermuda and elephant grass, Jackalberry tree, Manketti tree, River bushwillow and the Whistling thorn (Maya).

    Aside from trees and plants, the African Savannah is also home for diverse wildlife. In the Serengeti plain, one of the most popular Savvanah grassland in Africa and the world, there about 2 million large plant-eating mammals and 500 species of birds. This African Savannah boasts the largest diversity of hoofed animals or ungulates such as gazelles, antelopes, zebras, wildebeest, rhinoceros and buffaloes. Other familiar mammals found in the African grasslands include the elephants, giraffe, lion, aardwolf, and Chacma baboons to name a few (Maya).

    Bird life also abounds the land and air of African Savannah, of which the ostrich is perhaps the best known. The Ground Hornbill, Starling, and Louries are other birds found within the Savannah, so are the flycatchers, shrikes and green pigeons. Large bird like vultures and hawks, and other birds of prey are also present in some of these grasslands (Staten Island Zoological Society 9).


    Reptiles are also well adapted in the semi-arid climate of the African Savannah. Snakes such as the burrowing pythons, cobras, savannah monitors, and other snakes, along with a variety of lizards, survive the African Savannah by eating rodents and other small mammals and birds. Leopard tortoise and other of its relatives survive on lands, while crocodiles are found in rivers (Staten Island Zoological Society 9).
 
Food Web
    Just like any other form of biome, the African Savannah follows a food web in order to function and maintain a healthy ecosystem. The abundant grasses and trees in the African Savannah support the vegetation of large groups of grazers and browsers (zebras, elephants etc) or a combination of both. As many as sixteen grazing and browsing species may coexist within the same area of the Savannah, and each of these herbivorous groups has their own food preferences, dividing the resources according to the needs and time of day for each group. However, as not all of the animals in the biome eat plants, most of the grazers and browsers become the prey of carnivorous animals. In this respect, the trees, shrubs, and grass stands as the primary producers the grazers and browsers are the primary consumers, and the carnivores that feed on the primary consumers are considered as the secondary consumers (cheetahs, lions etc.). The carcasses left by the secondary consumers are then consumed by scavengers such as termite, hyenas, and vultures. The remaining group in the food web, the decomposers or detrivores (mushrooms, microorganisms, and insects), feed on the decaying organisms, which in turn carry out the process of decompositionan imperative process for the growth and development of new organisms within the biome (Amsel).

Adaptation
    The year round warmth and wet and dry seasons in the African Savannah can be a futile ground for other living organisms. However, the plants and animals found in these biomes have learned to adapt to these extremes in order to survive. Indeed, many Savannah plants and animals manifest unique and interesting adaptation qualities (Maya).


    Grasses in these areas have very deep roots which make them unharmed during fires. Once the rain returns, these grasses are able to send up new shoots from their roots. Many plants have also developed long taproots like the River bushwillow that allow them to reach down to water, while some kinds of trees, such as the baobab, have fire-resistant barks and trunks where they store water. Acacia trees are capable of emitting foul-tasting and poisonous alkaloids to ward of giraffes from eating their leaves. It has also been found that these trees have the ability to communicate danger to other acacia trees, which in turn emit the same chemicals into their leaves. The same can be said with the candelabra tree, whose white sap contains a poison that can blind animals (Maya).

     As water becomes scarce during the dry season in the African Savannah, many birds and large mammals migrate, and will only return once the rainy season starts. Burrowing animals go into a state of dormancy during this same period as well. Many animals can also withstand long periods without water such as the Giraffe, which only drinks water when it is available. They can survive for weeks without drinking but would also take advantage of the dew and water derived from their food (The Wild Carnivore).

    Some animals have unique physical characteristics that allow them to survive and feed themselves. For instance, the caracal, which is a kind of cat smaller than the leopard, has hind legs that are much longer than its front legs, allowing it to climb trees effectively and hunt birds by leaping into the air. The meerkat live in communities, and each meerkat warns each other of incoming danger (Staten Island Zoological Society 24). The African hedgehog can manipulate its backbone, allowing it to curl up into a ball, exposing its spiny armor whenever a predator threatens it (The Wild Carnivore), while the ostrich runs as fast 31 miles per hour, making it impossible for some predators to run after it (Maya). These and many more are the adaptive qualities of both the plants and animals in the African Savannah that allow them to survive the extreme situation of the said biome.

    Based on the discussion above, it can be inferred that the African Savannah is an extreme environment that serves as a habitat for diverse plant and animal species that captured the beauty of nature. However, as large area of the African continent is made up of various Savannah and due to these environments diverse wildlife, population living in these areas tends to damage these environments in many ways. It is important to note that large areas of Africa that were once Savannah have been destroyed, harming the species living in these areas in the process. Although many efforts are forwarded in order to contain such degradations, there is still a need to establish stronger policies that would further protect Savannah environment. By doing so, wildlife scenes will be prevented from becoming extinct.

Nowadays, the Earth is suffering from a lot of environmental problems brought about by human activities. We get from nature not only what we need but also what we want which led to the degradation of very own environment. The natural disasters that claimed thousands of lives from around the world served as warning from Mother Nature telling us to change our ways and be more innovative in our daily activities. Disasters around the world proved to us that the earth has lost its original balance. Many of the forests in many countries are already denuded. Wastes products in both industries and households are found floating in the rivers and the seas. Chemicals from the farmlands caused damage to land and water resources. And the surging amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses released everyday into the atmosphere made the world hotter resulting to severe changes in the climate.

    One of the many institution and organization that advocates for the preservation and protection natural resources is the Surfrider Foundation. The foundation is a non-profit organization of grassroots stakeholders that are passionate and are committed in protecting and enjoying the worlds waters particularly the oceans, waves and beaches. The foundation started from a handful of visionary surfers who were concerned about the worsening situation of the ocean particularly in Malibu, California in 1984. With conservation, activism, research and education as guiding principles, the Surfrider Foundation was established on that same year. At present, the foundation has members from all over the United States numbering to 50,000 and 90 chapters have been established in many foreign countries. Countries such as Japan, Australia, Brazil, France and other European countries have affiliate organizations in the foundation.

    At the core of the Surfrider Foundation are environmental-friendly principles that serve as the guide and the rule to be adopted by the foundations activities. The principles explicitly enumerate the things that people must do even if they are not affiliated in the foundation. The Foundations principles are the reason why the foundation continues to thrive and exist.

    The first principle of the foundation is the recognition of the biodiversity and ecological integrity. These aspects need to be considered given the fact that coasts are imperative for the planets survival and restoration. Surfrider Foundation makes it a point that the natural integrity of the coastal environment will be preserved and protected at all cost.

Second, the foundation advocates for the right of access to beaches from around the world for people from all walks of life. Third, Surfrider Foundation gives protection to the effects on the near-shore ecosystems from wave-riding opportunities. This means that, while people enjoy the shores and the waters, they are still conscious about the effects that will impede on the near-shore ecosystem.

 Fourth, the foundation believes in the power of education to impart values on environmental conservation and protection. This is also a major advocacy of Surfrider as they believe that education is essential to the health and well-being of the earth and the sustainability of essential resources. The fourth principle of the foundation also emphasizes the need for environmental education to be more informative, proactive, factual, and synergistic and is conducted or imparted in interesting ways.

 Fifth, Surfrider Foundation employs communication that is accurate and nonpartisan. It is a kind of communication that is open and transparent to the general public. And just like the ocean waves, the foundation values individualism but at the same time camaraderie with profound appreciation to the unique capabilities and potentials of human beings and their connection with the ocean. In line with transparency and participation, the sixth principle of the foundation focused on the importance of membership participation from the grassroots level. They value highly each members contribution towards the improvement of the organization.

The other principles give importance to the value of non discrimination. The foundation accepts membership from different race and nationality. It does not discriminate members on the basis of religion, color, beliefs and practices and sexuality. These, they believe are crucial ingredients to fully realize the goal of the foundation which is the healthy enjoyment of all people of the coastal environment. The principles mentioned above are being followed by the representatives, affiliates and members of the organization.

    Since the inception of the Surfrider Foundation in 1984 in Malibu, California, the organization has been involved in many advocacies and actions in the conservation, preservation and maintenance of the ocean ecosystem. The foundation has been proven to be an effective tool to combat environmental degradation and is also regarded as an effective grassroots environmental movement. It has also been proven as a powerful advocate and caretaker if the marine environment which is the foundations reason of existence. Its membership is made up of people from all walks of life including among others, beach enthusiasts, surfers, divers, swimmers and people whose heart aches for the protection of the seas.

    The foundations in its 24 years of existence have already made a lot of accomplishments. Some of their accomplishments include winning the second Clean Water Act in the American history in the year 1991.  They have also successfully protected historical natural wetlands and sandy coasts of Bolsa Chica, California by successfully blocking a marina that could otherwise destroyed the said natural ecosystems. They also strove hard to combat large commercial beach resort companies from taking over miles of beach resorts that could have caused degradation in the quality of the waters as well as eliminate surfing activities.

    Another notable achievement of the foundation is the institutionalization of a uniform national water quality monitoring, reporting and beach posting program which was approved by the federal government as an effective measure and tool in safeguarding the oceans. Aside from this, they have also won in their campaign to stop discharges of pollutant, particularly the partially treated sewage, into the ocean, which also causes major damage to the seawaters. In terms of activities that needed lawsuits, they have won against the Chevron Oil Company in El Segundo, California that could have otherwise contributed to the pollutants in the sea.

    Above all, the foundation recognizes the role of education for a sustainable future. Given this, the Surfrider Foundation educated thousands of school children on the value and importance of maintaining, protecting and conserving the wonders and richness of the ocean and the coastal ecosystems. This effort would surely lead to a more comprehensive information drive as a means to achieving their mission of protecting and safeguarding the ocean for all people.

    Aside from the abovementioned achievement, the Surfrider Foundation also has many initiatives that geared towards the achievement of their goal and mission. The foundations official website enumerated several of its initiatives which include among others, Clean Water Initiative, Beach Access, Beach Preservation, and Special Places Initiatives. The following initiatives are explicitly explained in the Surfrider Foundation Website (2009) as follows The Clean Water initiative is primarily focused on protecting water quality in coastal watersheds and in the near-shore marine environment. Consequently, the Surfrider Foundation advocates for strong water quality regulations, adequate marine recreational water quality monitoring, reporting and posting, reduction of polluted discharges into the ocean and education regarding personal responsibility for the reduction water pollution. We also support smart land use planning to ensure that coastal environmental resources are protected and healthy watersheds are maintained (httpwww.surfrider.orgwhatwedo2.aspx).

Another initiative, which is the Beach Access emphasized on the right of all people to a free and open access to beaches and worlds waves as explained by the Surfrider Foundation (2009) below Beaches are one of the most popular public resources. Because individuals need access to beaches in order to enjoy them, beach access is probably the most important indicator in determining the number of people who can enjoy beaches. In nearly every state, some portion of the beach is public land, which means that all members of the public have the right to use that portion of the beach. Because much of the land between where people can park and where they can enjoy the beach is privately owned, their ability to enjoy beaches often depends on the quality and availability of access between roads and parking lots and the beach. It is simply not equitable for only some people to have access to the ocean and beaches, which are public resources (httpwww.surfrider.orgwhatwedo2.aspx).

Moreover, the initiative in Beach Preservation is focused on protecting the unique coastal environments and beaches that have ecological, economic and recreational value based on the premise that the ocean is free for everyone. The Surfrider Foundation (2009) goes on explaining that Beaches are a public resource and should be held in the public trust. As human activities and development in coastal areas increase, the need for preservation of beaches becomes ever more apparent. Hazards occur when naturally dynamic coastal processes encounter static human development, and when humans interfere with marine and littoral systems
With these initiatives, the Surfrider Foundation is apparently working actively and proactively in the promotion of effective coastal management to further prevent and even stop coastal hazards and degradation (httpwww.surfrider.orgwhatwedo2.aspx).

    It is noteworthy to say that this foundation truly cares for the natural environment particularly the ocean ecosystem through their coastal research, advocacy and scientific coastal management. Their efforts promote sustainability of the resources that are otherwise destroyed when commercial and big beach establishment took over the oceans of the world. The accessibility of their data and relevant information on ways of protecting the ocean has proved to be an effective strategy to mainstream their advocacy, thereby furthering the efforts in ocean environment preservation.

    The many causes of pollution and destruction of our ocean ecosystems is the very sole reason why the foundation exists and continues to exist. As long as people would not realize that they are the source as well as the solutions to the environmental problems, the foundation would seize to exist. The people behind the foundation are just ordinary individuals who care for the welfare of other people through the protection of marine resources. Many of peoples diseases are oftentimes caused by the pollutions in our oceans. There is a need for everyone to realize that it is now time to act and strengthen our commitment to save our environment from eventual destruction. In this regard, the Surfrider Foundation is highly commended for their efforts and struggles in protecting the nature that sustains our life.

Sea otters are an endangered species whose population recovery has been inconsistent since the banning of commercial hunting in 1911. Currently, sea otters face threats from fishing (entrapment in nets), surf conditions (inhibiting food availability), predation from whales and sharks, infection from Toxoplasma godii, and oil spills. The success of the species is essential as they are a keystone predator. In the absence of otters, sea urchins proliferate, kelp forests disappear, and numerous marine species lose their habitats. Because of the necessity of sea otter populations, much more research needs to be done particularly with regards to whale predation and T. godii infection. Effective policies can then be enacted to ensure the survival of this species.

Introduction
    Sea otters, Enhydra lutris, are rather large members of the Mustelidae family (Morrison et al. 218). They range in size from 48 to 58 inches in length and from 44 to 100 pounds in weight (Sea World). These diurnal animals are noted for their dense, water-resistant fur (Morrison et al. 219), their use of tools (218), and their strong swimming abilities (Lubina 539).
    Historically, the habitat range of the sea otter extended from Japan to the Pacific coast of Mexico (Doroff et al. 55). They typically prefer isolated, rocky subtidal kelp-forest habitats (Lubina 534). Though sea otters generally live in cold water regions, their range extends as far south as Baja California (Morrison et al. 225, 228). There are actually three subspecies of sea otters which are separated geographically Enhydra lutris lutris (Russian or Asian sea otter), Enhydra lutris kenyoni (Alaskan sea otter), and Enhydra lutris nereis (southern or California sea otter) (Sea World).
    Sea otters are carnivorous animals known for their voracious appetite and substantial maintenance requirement (Morrison et al. 225). In fact, sea otters eat approximately 25 of their body weight each day (Miller et al. 1005). The primary food source for sea otters consists of benthic invertebrates such as crabs, sea urchins, abalones, clams, mussels, and snails found in subtidal zones (Lubina 532). Sea otters forage for their food in water that is no more than 30m deep. As such, much of their population is concentrated near coastlines (532).
    Under the Endangered Species Act, the California sea otter is listed as threatened, meaning that there is a high risk of extinction (Sea World). The animals precarious existence largely arose because of commercial hunting for the extremely valuable furs (Morrison et al. 218). In 1911, the year that commercial hunting was outlawed, the California sea otter was thought to be extinct (Lubina 529), and the once abundant populations in the westernmost Aleutian Islands had been exterminated (Estes and Duggins 78).  Fortunately, smaller colonies still existed, and populations gradually began to rebuild through a combination of reproduction and migration. In 2000, the minimum population estimate for the Aleutian archipelago was 8,742 (Doroff et al, 55). Estimates of the California sea otter population are around 2,300 (Miller et al, 1003). It should be noted that it is extremely difficult to estimate populations especially in northern sea otters. For these populations in vast and remote regions, aerial surveys, though problematic, provide the only practical means of counting the animals (Doroff et al. 61). California sea otters, on the other hand, are relatively easy to count from the shore (Rall et al. 1529).
    Despite recovery efforts including the establishment of new colonies, population growth, has not been steady throughout the decades. Since the end of commercial hunting, otters have faced, and will continue to face, a large number of threats. Consideration of each of these threats  fishing, surf conditions, predation, infection, and oil pollution  illustrates the vulnerability of this species. As this species is considered a keystone predator, its success is vital to the stability of its ecosystem.
       
Discussion
Fishing Practices
In the 1970s, the recovery of the California sea otter population suffered a setback due to the incidental take of sea otters in gill and trammel nets (Rall et al. 1530). Regulations on net fishing helped restrict the number of sea otter deaths (1531). Though sea otters do not currently face huge problems from commercial fishing practices, that these practices occurred historically should always be kept in mind when regulatory practices are updated.

Surf Conditions
    Alaskan sea otters face problems due to heavy surf conditions, a significant source of mortality. Females with pups will generally travel to sheltered inlets to protect themselves and their offspring. These conditions may also be affecting California otters, with juveniles having a more difficult time foraging for food (Lubina 54).

Predation
    Sea otter populations are currently declining due to the activities of two predators, killer whales and sharks, with the former affecting Alaskan populations and the latter affecting California populations. In a study on the sea otter population in the Aleutian archipelago, Doroff et al. found that the population increased in the 1980s only to abruptly decline in the 1990s. Because of the uniformly low population density, Doroff et al. hypothesized that the decrease is due to increased predation (55). Killer whales appeared to be the likely suspect as sea otter numbers in Clam Lagoon, an area inaccessible to killer whales, remained stable while numbers in Kuluk Bay, an area inhabited by killer whales, declined by 76 (Estes et al. 1998). This was a rather surprising finding as sea otters are not killer whales typical food however, the whales might have had to change their diets after numbers of their preferred prey, harbor seals and Steller sea lions, declined (Doroff et al. 63).
    Predation by killer whales has been visually established, with the first attack being witnessed in 1991. Since this time, nine more attacks have been seen. It is estimated that approximately 6,788 sea otters die from killer whale predation in the Aleutian Islands each year (Estes et al. 1998).
Southern sea otters are susceptible to attack by sharks. Kreuder et al. found that 13.3 of southern sea otter deaths were caused by shark attacks (500). For sharks, however, sea otters are not a food source. The wounds found on otters were typically large gashes similar to those seen when sharks attack humans and not consistent with bite patterns reserved for intended prey (504).

Infection
    Infectious diseases pose an enormous threat to sea otter populations. Kreuder et al. found that a high percentage of mortality in southern sea otters from 1992-1995 was due to infectious disease (495-496). Southern sea otters appear to be particularly affected by Toxoplasma gondii. Miller et al. found that 42 of live otters and 62 of dead otters had T. gondii in their blood (1000). In this study, frequency of infection was found to be positively associated with male gender, increasing age, dead versus live status, and proximity to freshwater flow at the time of sampling (1001). It was also found that rates of infection were particularly high near the towns of Morrow Bay and Cayucas, California (1001). The researchers believe that the sea otters primary food source, benthic invertebrates, contribute to the high-rate of infection as these invertebrates are filter-feeding (1005).
    While Miller et al did not examine mortality rates from T. gondii, this aspect was examined by Kreuder et al. The researchers found that T. gondii infections can lead to death from encephalitis in sea otters and that this is one of the leading causes of death in the southern sea otter (Kreuder et al. 499). This infection also makes sea otters more susceptible to death from cardiac disease and shark attack (502, 504).

Oil Pollution
    According to Rall et al., the most serious threat the southern sea otter population faces is a major oil spill (1528). Oil pollution, such as that arising from the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, poses both immediate and long-term consequences to all subspecies of sea otters. Short term consequences include harm to the otters fur. This fur is essential to the maintenance of body temperature (1530), and otters spend a great deal of time grooming their fur.
With regards to the effect of oil spills on sea otters, the Exxon Valdez case is instructive. Immediately following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill in 1989, between 1000 and 2800 sea otters died in the Prince William Sound, Alaska area (Peterson et al. 2082). The otters primary food source, benthic invertebrates, also suffered mass mortality from toxicity, smothering, and physical displacement from the habitat due to pressurized wash-water (2082).
    Despite intensive clean-up efforts, much oil remained in the ecosystem, and this oil affected primarily those areas populated by sea otters. Oil settled in the intertidal zone with gravelly shores as well as under mussel beds (Peterson et al. 2082). From these locations, oil has had a long-lasting entry point into many vital food chains (2083). Indeed, sea otters have been found to suffer from chronic exposure to oil both from sedimentary concentration as well as from food sources, and this chronic exposure has increased mortality rates for a number of years (2083). This increased mortality rate has significantly affected population growth rates in areas strongly affected by the oil spill. For example, at Knight Island, which was heavily oiled during the spill, the sea otter population had not begun to increase as late as 2000 while at Montague Island, which was not subjected to any of the spilled oil, the population doubled in the period from 1995 to 1998 (2083).
One explanation for this lack of increase in population is the otters food source. The clams and mussels they eat have chronically elevated tissue contamination because they very slowly metabolize hydrocarbons (Peterson et al, 2083). When the otters eat these animals, they are ingesting concentrated amounts of hydrocarbons. This hypothesis seems to be supported by the finding of significantly higher levels of cytochrome P4501A, a biomarker of hydrocarbons, in Knight Island sea otters (Bodkin et al. 237).

Ecological Implications of the Presence  Absence of Sea Otters
    Sea otters are essential to the Gulf of Alaska kelp ecosystem because they help control sea urchin populations. This, in turn, helps prevent sea urchins from overgrazing on the kelp and macroalgae that provides structural habitats for fish and invertebrates (Peterson et al. 2085). The sea otters role in this ecosystem has been studied by Estes et al (1998). In this study, the researchers found that, as a result of sea otter population decline, sea urchin size and density increased to produce an eight-fold increase in biomass, while kelp density declined by more than a factor of 12 (Estes et al, 1998). This constitutes an enormous change in the ecosystem.
    Because sea otters predation on sea urchins has such a large effect on the ecosystem, these animals have been labeled keystone predators (Mills et al. 220). Otters, in fact, control the density of numerous other species through their eating habits. This ecosystem is, therefore, controlled from top-down forces, with carnivores limiting herbivores, and herbivores limiting plants (Estes and Duggin 98).
    As killer whales are now feeding on sea otters, their role in this food web must be considered. Post World War II industrial whaling had greatly reduced the number of whales. In 1976, commercial whaling was outlawed, and numbers of whales began to increase again. However, harbor seal and Steller sea lion populations  the primary food choices for killer whales  began to decline in the late 1960s and 1970s (Estes et al. 2009, 1649). As whales turn more and more to sea otters for nourishment, the ecosystem will likely become more and more misbalanced.

SummaryConclusion
    Sea otters have historically faced high threat levels from commercial hunting and fishing practices. Placement on the endangered species has drawn attention to the plight of the sea otter, and considerable progress has been made in allowing the populations to recovers. However, numerous threats still exist. While some, such as surf conditions, are not able to be controlled, others result from human activities and can be regulated. Infection from T. gondii comes from freshwater run-off, often from inadequately treated wastewater containing domestic cat feces (Miller et al. 998). As oil spills pose the most serious threat to sea otter populations, everything possible must be done to ensure that oil does not leak into the ecosystem. With regards to predation by killer whales and sharks, much more research must be done to determine the causes of these events. What has caused the decline in the population of killer whales food Why are sharks attacking sea otters and not eating them
    More work also needs to be done to establish populations. As part of the initial recovery efforts, a new colony of sea otters was established by scientists to minimize the risk that the entire population would be wiped out (Rall et al. 1530). This colony at San Nicolas Island proved to be largely unsuccessful as the majority of the 139 transplanted sea otters returned to their original location, with only seventeen remaining in the new colony (1531). Research into the reasons behind this migration might allow the establishment of other colonies in more suitable environments.
    Because the success of the entire kelp ecosystem is dependent upon the success of sea otter populations, much more research and policy initiatives need to be undertaken in this area.

Environmental conservation has been a major issue of concern in major national and international forums due to the seriousness as well as the magnitude of the environmental problem of global warming which is threatening the very future of the globe. Global warming is caused by rampant industrial activities and lifestyles which pollute the environment by emitting dangerous gases and destroying the ozone layer.
     This has called for discussion on how a sustainable society can be achieved by the year 2050. The initial major step to prevent global warming was taken by the Kyoto Protocol which came into effect in Feb.16, 2005. The protocol observed that there was need to reduce greenhouse emissions drastically in order to save the globe and thus ensure our own future survival. It is important to note that this year an environmental conference will be held in Copenhagen at governmental level for the last time before the Kyoto protocol which ends in 2012 and can be reviewed (Fujimoto J. et al n.d).
    It has been noted that for conservation efforts to succeed, information communication technology (ICT) needs to be incorporated in order to come up with innovative ways of effecting change that would reduce the emission of the gases that bring about global warming. To do this, ICT has to be integrated at policy formulation level and long term strategies sought to guide the implementation of the policy to achieve a low greenhouse gas emission society. In future and with the help of technology, we may be able to see a self sustaining society that naturally produces the energy it uses, harvests its water and produces its own food (Retail Futures 2022)
Environmental influence of ICT
    One of the major positive environmental influences of ICT is its role in reducing resource and energy consumption through dematerialization and improvement of efficiency. Dematerialization means replacing normally used materials such as newspapers, books, compact discs and plastics with electronic means of disseminating the information that was previously disseminated through manual means.
     Such a step would have a positive ripple effect. For example, the need for transportation required to move these materials from place to place would be eliminated because the materials would be transmitted electronically. In this regard, efficiency would be improved since factors such as loss of materials during transportation and time consumed in the journey would be a thing of the past.  Similarly, Use of engine driven vehicles would be unnecessary leading to a reduction of the carbon gas that would usually be emitted into the environment by such vehicles. With the current scramble for alternatives for the combustion engine, it is possible that in future the combustion engine may actually be replaced entirely. Research is underway at the Fraunhofer Institute of Ceramic Technology to develop fuel cells that may well revolutionize the way engines are made (Pearson  Neild 2006).
Renewable energy
    Renewable energy sources are those sources which cannot be depleted and have the capacity to replenish naturally. Renewable energy sources include wind energy, geothermal energy, hydro-power, bio-energy and hydrogen.
    Geothermal energy is generated from the heat found deep in the earths crust. This form of energy is tapped and used for electricity generation or heating homes. It is clean and poses no threat to the environment.
    Hydro-power is generated from water in rivers and used to provide power to many industries and energy for domestic purposes. This form of energy is also clean and renewable. Solar energy on the other hand is tapped from the sun and used to provide electricity, heat water and power other machines such as mobile phones. These illustrations serve to show the importance of renewable energy sources and how it conserves the environment because it is clean.
    The United States face a serious energy shortage in future due to rapid population growth and consequently high energy needs. This will further affect the environment adversely because the higher the population, the higher the rate of carbon emissions into the environment. This phenomenon can only be tackled by embracing the use of renewable energy to meet new energy demand (Fujimoto J. et al n.d). Further measures to curb the rate of carbon emissions should be put in place to check the amount of carbon emissions by integrating ICT in the daily lives of individuals.
    Modern advances in technology and meteorological innovations have come up with devices that can detect storms, hurricanes, earthquakes and tornadoes with a high level of accuracy so that people can be warned in advance before the tragedy happens. (Conrad 1996) In the United States, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is mandated to issue warnings before the onset of severe weather conditions that are dangerous to human survival. This organization has saved many lives by informing those who live in the affected area to vacate the area well in advance before tragedy strikes.
    Carbon footprint refers to the average personal carbon dioxide emissions for an individual either through body emissions or involvement in activities that emit carbon into the atmosphere. In the developed world, the average personal carbon dioxide emissions are 9.675 metric tons per year (Bassett, L. 2000). These emissions come from personal energy usage through car travel, commuter transport and air flights. Such gases affect the rays of the sun and lead to global warming. To offset the carbon emissions one emits into the atmosphere, one should make it a personal duty to plant trees to absorb the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and consequently reduce activities that emit carbon into the atmosphere.